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ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

AND 

COMPOSITION ; 
FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS: 

BEING 

IH INTRODUCTION TO U THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH 

GRAMMAR," WITH COPIOUS^ EXERCISES, AND 

DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

rHOR OF THE SERIES OF GRAMMARS, ENGLISH LATIN, AND 
GREEK, ON THE SAME FLAN. 



NEW-YORK: 
PUBLISHED BY PRATT, WOODFORD & CO 



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— -_"■'•%» 



J LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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J| lra F '■■ ^opgrisW fa 

! UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 



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PRACTICAL LESSONS 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



COMPOSITION 

FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS: 



BEING 



AN INTRODUCTION TO " THE PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH 



DIRECTIONS FOR THEIR USE. 



By Rev. PETER BULLIONS, D. D., 

AUTHOR OF THE SERIES OF GRAMMARS, ENGLISH, LATIN, AND 
GREEK, ON THE SAME PLAN. 

[A NEW EDITION REVISED AND CORRECTED.] 

NEW-YORK : 
PRATT, WOODFORD & COMPANY, 

No. i COURTLANDT STREET. 

1853. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the Year One Tl ousand 
Eight Hundred and Fifty-three, dvKev. PETEE BULLIONS, D. D., 
in the Clerk's Office o f the Nortnern District of New York. 



PREFACE. 



The general character of this little work is correctly described in the 
tide page. It is a series of " Practical Lessons on English Grammar 
and Composition, for Young Beginners." It owes its origin to a wish 
strongly expressed,, from various quarters, which the author is bound to 
respect, to have a small work on Grammar, suited by its simplicity to 
the capacity of children at an earlier age than that at which the study 
of Grammar is usually commenced, and answering in its practical char- 
acter, to the improved methods of teaching Grammar, as well as other 
branches in the more juvenile departments of Academies and Common 
Schools. 

The work is divided into Lessons, each of which is devoted to some 
one topic. The arrangement in each Lesson 'is the same throughout 
except that the Questions on each Rule of Syntax are left to be framed 
by the teacher. That order is the following : First, the Definitions and 
Rules belonging to the Lesson, and intended to be committed to memory, 
are placed first in large type. Next to these, any subordinate matter re- 
garded as proper for so brief a compend, is subjoined in a smaller type, 
to be carefully read and studied with the Lesson. Then, a series of 
Questions so framed that correct answers will bring out all the leading 
facts contained in the preceding text. And lastly, practical Exercises 
are subjoined, for the purpose of reducing immediately to practice the 
knowledge acquired, and fixing it in the easiest and most effectual man- 
ner in the understanding. 

The Exercises, in most of the Lessons, are capable of being used in a 
variety of ways ; and ample directions are given in small but clear type, 
as to the manner in which they are intended to be used ; so that even 
inexperienced teachers and others may be at no loss to conduct a class 
of very young pupils through a profitable initiatory course of English 
Grammar. 

In Etymology, "Illustrations" are occasionally thrown in, to shew 
in what manner important principles in Grammar may be simplified to 
the young learner ; and in Syntax, a plain and familiar " Explanation' 
is subjoined to each Rule, for the same purpose. 



I? PREFACE. 

It is of great importance to keep the acquisitions of pupils already 
made always at hand, and to impress them indelibly on their minds by 
repeated reviews of previous Lessons ; and it will be seen that directions 
are given at the beginning of each Lesson, for carrying this useful prac- 
tice into effect. 

Another feature in this work,— and I may say peculiar to it,— is, that 
with the principles of Grammar, at every step are combined instructions 
and exercises in the elementary principles of Composition. Analysis 
and Composition are carried on together. Directions for parsing each 
part of speech, with accompanying examples for practice, are given as 
soon as it has been treated of: And in like manner the proper method 
of cdmbining words for the purpose of expressing our ideas, is pointed 
out, and Exercises devised, as soon as the pupil has been made acquaint- 
ed with the classes of words capable of being combined. One Exercise of 
this kind, sometimes more, is connected with almost every Rule of Syn- 
tax, as at once an exercise on the Rule and a praxis on Composition. 

As Orthography belongs more strictly to the Spelling Book, and 
Prosody is u study for more advanced pupils than those for whom this 
work is intended, they are introduced here only for the sake of form, 
and of course little is said respecting them. 



PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 

This edition has been revised and corrected to correspond with 
the new edition of u The Principles of English Grammar/ 7 and 
with the " Analytical and Practical Grammar of the English 
Language" recently published. Though this work is not intended 
to be a complete treatise on English Grammar, no pains have 
been spared to render it useful as far as it goes. It contains as 
much as any work of its size, presented in a neat and perspicuous man- 
ner ; and moreover, possesses some new and peculiar features, which 
claim the candid attention and examination, of all who feel an interest 
in simplifying .the process of education to the youthful mind, and doing 
the most good in the shortest time, in the simplest and most pleasing 
manner, at the earliest period, and at the least expense. 

Those who commence the study of Grammar after the age of twelve 
or fourteen, stand in no need of this work. They should commence at 
once with the other, w T hich contains a complete course of English Gram- 
mar, without any other book, and is sufficiently simple for pupils of tha 
age. But young pupils, by going through this will enter, even at an 
earlier period, on the study of the larger Grammar with great advantage. 



CONTENTS. 
Lesson Page. 

1 Definition and Division, 7 

PART FIRST. — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2 Concerning Letters and Syllables, 7 

PART SECOND. — ETYMOLOGY. 

3 Division of "Words, 9 

4 Of Nouns, 10 

5 Of Person 11 

6 Of Gender, '. 12 

7 Of Number, , . 15 

8 Of the Cases of Nouns, 18 

9 Of the Article, 20 

10 Of the Adjective, 21 

11 Comparison of Adjectives, 23 

12 Of the Pronoun, 26 

13 Of Relative Pronouns, 29 

14 Of Adjective Pronouns, 32 

15 Exercises on Articles, Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, 35 

16 Of Verbs, . 35 

17 Division of Verbs, 38 

18 Inflection of Verbs, 41 

19 Of the Moods 43 

20 Of Tenses, or Distinctions of Time, 44 

21 Of Number and Person, 47 

22 Of the Participles, 49 

23 Of the Conjugation of Verbs, 51 

24 Negative form of the Verb, 57 

25 Interrogative form of the Verb, ...... 59 

26 The Verb " to be," 60 

27 Progressive Form of the Active Voice, 64 

28 Passive Voice, . .* 65 

29 Of Irregular Verbs, 69 

30 Defective and Impersonal Verbs, 75 

3 1 Of Adverbs, 76 

32 Of Prepositions, 79 

33 Of Interjections, 81 

34 Of Conjunctions, 82 

35 How to distinguish the Parts of Speech, 83 

36 Parsing, 85 

37 Model of Etymological Parsing, 87 

38 Exercises in Parsing, 88 



CONTENTS. 



PART THIRD—SYNTAX. 

39 General Principles of Syntax, 91 

40 Parts of Syntax, 92 

41 Rule I. A Verb and its Nominative, 92 

42 II. A Transitive Verb and its Object, 94 

43 III. A Preposition and its Object, 95 

44 IV. Two or more Nouns taken in connexion, 96 

45 V. Two or more Nouns taken separately, 97 

46 VI." Two Nominatives of different Persons, 97 

47 VII. A collective Noun, 98 

48 VIII. Adjective and Substantive, 99 

49 IX. When two Persons or things are contrasted,.. 100 
5e X. Pronouns, 101 

51 XL Relative and Antecedent, 102 

52 XII. Substantives in Apposition, 103 

53 XIII. The same Case after a Verb as before it, 103 

54 XIV. The Possessive Case, 104 

55 XV. The Present Participle used as a Noun, 106 

56 XVI. The Present Participle with the Article before it, 106 

57 XVII. The Perfect Participle after have and be, 107 

58 XVIII. The Infinitive Mood, 108 

59 XIX. The Subjunctive Mood, 109 

60 XX. Conjunctions, 110 

61 XXI. Corresponding Conjunctions, . . . Ill 

62 XXII. The Comparative Degree, 1 12 

63 XXIII. Double Comparatives and Superlatives, 113 

64 XXIV. Adverbs, 114 

65 XXV. Position of Adverbs, 115 

66 XXVI. Negatives, 116 

67 XXVII. Prepositions before names of places, 117 

68 XXVIII. " after certain words and phrases, » . 118 

69 XXIX. Syntax of the Tenses, 119 

70 XXX. A member of a sentence referring to two clauses 120 

71 • XXXI. The Nominative absolute and independent,.. 121 

72 XXXII. TheArticle, 122 

73 XXXIII. An Ellipsis admissible, 123 

74 XXXIV. An Ellipsis not admissible, 124 

75 Model of Syntactical Parsing, 125 

76 Promiscuous Exercises on the Rules of Syntax,. 126 

77 Of Punctuation, 127 

73 Of the use of Capital Letters, 128 

PART FOURTH.— PROSODY. 

79 Prosody. Elocution, Versification, 129 

80 Of Composition. 130 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSOiU. 
Definition and Division. 

[Commit Definitions and Rules accurately to memory.] 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English Language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely. Orthogra- 
phy , Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON II. 

Concerning Letters and Syllables. 

[Review the preceding Lesson.] 

Orthography treats of letters, and the mode of 
combining them into syllables and words. 

A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of the 
human voice. 

There are Twenty-six letters in the English Alphabet. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple inarticulate 
sound; and in a word or syllable may be sounded alone. The 
vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and w and y, not before another vowel sounded 
in the same syllable. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents an articulate sound ; 
and in a word or syllable is never sounded alone, but always in con- 
nexion with a vowel. The consonants are, b, c, d, f, g, h,j, k, I, m, 
n, p> q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and w and y before a vowel sounded in the 
same syllable. 



8 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound; as, ou 
in out . 

A proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sound 
ed; as oy in boy, ou in round, oi in oil. 

An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels 
is sounded; as, oa in boat. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound; as, 
eau in beauty. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a word; 
sls, far; or so much of it as can be sounded at once; as,/ar in 
farmer. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable; as, fox, dog. 

A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables; as, far-mer. 

A Trisyllable is a word of three syllables; as, but-ter-fly. 

A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its 
proper letters. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is English Grammar ? Into how many parts is it divid- 
ed? Mention them. What is orthography? What is a letter? 
How many letters are there in English ? How are they divided ? 
What is a vowel? — a consonant? Name the vowels. When are 
w and y vowels? When consonants ? What is a diphthong ? — a 
proper diphthong? — an improper diphthong? — a triphthong? — 
What is a syllable ? What is a word of one syllable termed ? — 
of two ? — of. three ? — of four or more ? What is spelling ? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. V 

PART SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 

LESSON III. 

Division of Words. 

[Review the preceding Lessons, and answer the questions..* 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivations. 

Words are certain articulate sounds used by com- 
mon consent as signs of our ideas. They are divid- 
ed into different classes, called 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 
The parts of Speech in the English language are 
nine ; viz., The Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Con- 
junction. — Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are 
declined ; the rest are indeclinable. 

A Substantive is a noun, or any word used as a noun. 

Obs. A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain 
changes of form or termination, to express the different relations 
of gender, number, case, person, &c, usually termed in Gram- 
mar Accidents; as, man, men; love, loves, loved. 

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of 
form ; as, good, some, perhaps. 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements or parts of speech, stating the Accidents 
which belong to each word, and pointing out its re- 
lations to other words with which it is connected. 

QUESTIONS. 
What does Etymology treat of? What are words ? What are 
they divided into ? What are these classes called? How many 
parts of speech are there ? Name them. Which are declinable ? 
Which are indeclinable ? What is a declinable word ?— an inde- 
clinable ? What is Parsing ? 



10 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



LESSON IV. 
Of Nouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing ; as, John, London, book. 

Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Common. 

A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indivi- 
dual only ; as, Washington, Albany, the Hudson. 

A Common Noun is a name applied to all things 
of the same sort; as, man, chair, table, book. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Under common nouns are usually ranked, 

1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude ; as, army, people. 

2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities ; as, piety, wickedness. 

3. Verbal nouns, or names of actions; as, reading, writing, 
sleeping. 

ILLUSTRATION.— Every thing of which a person can speak, hear, or think, 
has a name ; that name in grammar is called a noun. Names common to all 
things of the same sort, or class,are called Common nouns ; as, Man, woman, day, 
river, city, country. 

Names applied only to individuals of a sort or class, and not common to all, 
are called Proper nouns ; as, John, Lucy, Friday, Thames, London, England. 
Common nouns, then, distinguish sorts or classes ; Proper nouns distinguish in- 
dividuals. Thus,* the noun " Man " is the name of a class or species, and is 
applied equally to all, or is common to all the individuals in that class. But 
"John" is a name that belongs only to certain individuals of that class, and not 
to others; it is therefore not Common but Proper* 

A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase speak of, is a noun ; 
as, A man ; I speak of money. 

To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and 
Case. 

* The word " proper" means " not belonging to more, not common ; noting 
an individual." — Johnson. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a noun ? How many kinds of nouns are there ? What 
is a common noun ? What is a proper noun ? What part of 
speech are names of things ? What is a collective noun ? — an 
abstract noun ? — a verbal noun ? Are these nouns proper or com- 
mon ? What Accidents belong to nouns ? 

EXERCISES. 

Point out the nouns in the following sentences ; say why they are nouns. Tell 
whether they are proper or common, and why. Exercises of this kind may be 
taken from any book. 

The table and chairs in this room belong to Robert. 
The houses and streets in New-York are larger than 
those in Albany. The principal cities in the State of 
New-York, are New- York, Albany, Utica, Rochester, 
and Buffalo. Wheat, corn, rye, and oats,are extensively 
cultivated. Apples, pears, cherries, plums, and other 
fruits abound. George is older than John ; they both 
study arithmetic, and grammar. 



LESSON V. 
Of Person. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Person, in grammar, is the relation of* a noun or 
pronoun to what is said in discourse. 

The persons are three, First, Second, and Third. 

A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the 
speaker or 'writer ; as, " I Paul have written it." 

A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the 
person or thing addressed ; as, " Thou, God, seest 
me"— " Hail Liberty" 

A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the 
person or thing spoken of; as, " Truth is mighty." 



12 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Obs. — The first and the second person can belong only to nouns 
denoting persons, or things regarded as such ; because persons 
only can speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong 
to all nouns ; because every object, whether person or thing, may 
be spoken of. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Person makes no change either in the meaning or the 
form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it is used ; so that the 
same noun, without change, may be in the first person, or the second, or the 
third, according as it denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person 
or thing spoken of. Moreover, as the name of the speaker or of the person spoken 
to, is seldom expressed, (the pronoun I or thou being used in its stead,) a noun 
is very seldom in the first person, not often in the second, and almost never in 
either, unless it be a proper noun, or a common noun personified. It seems 
therefore a useless waste of time to mention the person of a noun in parsing, 
unless it is in the first or second person, which will not happen more than once 
in a thousand times. For this reason, the mention of person as a property of 
the noun, may be omitted in parsing, except when it is of the first or second 
person, always taking it for granted that it is of the third, unless otherwise men- 
tioned. The distinction of nouns into proper and common, may also be omitted, 
because no use is made of the distinction in the construction of a sentence. 

• QUESTIONS. 

What is person ? How many persons are there ? "What does 
the first denote ? — the second ? — the third ? To what sort of nouns 
do the first and the second person belong ? Why ? To what does 
the third belong ? Why ? Does person make any difference in the 
meaning or the form of the noun ? W T hat then does it denote ? Is 
the name of the speaker, or the person spoken to, often mentioned ? 
What words are used instead of them ? 



LESSON VI. 
Of Gender. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions-! 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
Sex. There are three genders, the Masculine, Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 

Nouns denoting males are Masculine ; ashman, 
boy, — king, lion. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



13 



Nouns denoting females are Feminine; as, woman, 
girl, — queen, lioness. 

Nouns denoting neither males nor females are 
Neuter ; as, book, house, field. 

There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes. 

1. By different words ; as 



Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Hart 


roe 


Beau 


belle 


Horse 


mare 


Boy 


girl 


Husband 


wife 


Brother 


sister 


King 


queen 


Buck 


doe 


Master 


mistress 


Bull 


cow 


Nephew 


niece 


Drake 


duck 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Son 


daughter 


Friar 


nun 


Stag 


hind 


Gander 


goose 


Uncle 


aunt 


2. By 


a difference of Termini 


ation ; as, 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Abbot 


abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Actor 


actress 


Lion 


lioness 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Baron 


baroness 


Peer 


peeress 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Poefr 


poetess 


Duke 


duchess 


Prince 


princess 


Emperor 


empress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Executor 


executrix 


.Tutor 


tutoress 


Heir 


heiress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Hero 


heroine 


Widower 


widow 


Host 


hostess 







3. By prefixing another word ; as, 

Masc. Fern. 

A cock sparrow A hen sparrow 

A he goat A she goat 



14 PRACTICAL LESSONS IJT 

Masc. Fern, 

A man servant A maid servant 

A male child A female child 

Male descendants Female descendants. 

^OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine ; as, parent y 
servant, neighbor. Such are sometimes said to be of the common 
gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are converted by a figure of 
speech into the masculine or the feminine ; as, when we say of the 
sun, " He is setting ;" of the moon, " She is eclipsed ;" and of a ship, 
" She sails." 

3. Animals of inferior size, or whose sex is not known, are often 
spoken of as neuter. Thus, of a child we may say, " It is a lovely 
creature." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is gender ? How many genders are there ? What does 
the masculine gender denote ? — the feminine ? — the neuter ? What 
nouns are said to be masculine ? What, feminine ? What, neuter ? 
How many ways are there of distinguishing the sexes ? What are 
they ? When a noun denotes either a male or a female, of what 
gender is it sometimes said to be ? When the sex of animals is not 
known, of what gender are their names ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the preceding lists, tell the feminine of each masculine noun, and the 
masculine of each feminine. 

2. Tell the part of speech and gender of the following words : thus, house, a 
noun, neuter ; boy, a noun, masculine, &c. 

House, boy, stone, boot, cow, father, mother, sister, 
brother, daughter, aunt, nephew, niece, uncle, shepherd, 
paper, pen, ink, parent, neighbor, friend, lion, widow, 
baron, negro, hero, house, tree, bird, mouse, fly, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

LESSON VII. 
Of Number. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have two 
numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The Sin- 
gular denotes one ; the Plural more than one. 

GENEKAL BULE. 

The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the 
singular ; as, book, books. 

SPECIAL KULES. 

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural 
by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes ; 
match, matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

Exc. Nouns in eo, io, and yo, and in ch sounding Jc, have s only ; 
as cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; monarch, monarchs. Also canto 
has cantos ; but other nouns in o after a consonant now commonly 
add es ; $s, grotto, grottoes ; tyro, tyroes, &c. 

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into 
ies in the plural; as, Lady, ladies. 

Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule ; 
as, Day, days. 

3. Nouns in/or/e, change/ or fe into ves in the 
plural ; as, Loaf loaves ; life, lives. 

Exc. Dwarf, scarf; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, handkerchief, 
mischief ; gulf, turf, surf ; fife, strife ; proof, hoof, roof, reproof, fol- 
low the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s ; as, 
muff, muffs ; except staff, which has sometimes staves. 



16 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



OBSERVATIONS. 



1. Some nouns form the plural 

coiner •— 


irregularly. They 


are the 


VVUi o • 

Singular, Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Man' men 


Tooth 


teeth 


"Woman women 


Goose 


geese 


Child children 


Mouse 


mice 


Foot feet 


Louse 


lice 


Ox oxen 


Penny 


pence 


Singular. 


Plural* 




Brother (one of the same family) brothers 




Brother (one of the same socie 


ty) brethren 




Sow or swine 


sows or swine 


Die (for gaming) 


dice 




Die (for coining) 


dies 




Aid-de-camp 


aids-de-camp 


Court-martial 


courts-martial 


Cousin-german 


cousins-germ an 


Father-in-law, &c. 


fathers-in 


-law, (fee. 



fat 



2. "Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their original 
plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on have a in the plural ; 
but is, in the singular, is changed into es ; ex and ix into ices ; us 
into i ; as, 



Sing. 
Arcanum 
Automaton 
Axis 



Plur. 
arcana 
automata 
axes 



Sing. 
Crisis 
Apex 
Magus 



Plur. 
crimes 
apices 
magi 



3. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a race 
or family ; as, the Steivarts ; or to several persons of the same 
name ; as, the twelve Ccesars. 

4. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things weighed or 
measured, are mostly singular ; as, gold, meekness, temperance, milk, 
sugar, &c. 

5. Some nouns are plural only; as, annals, data, bellows, scis- 
sors, &c. 

6. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, trout, 
salmon, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 17 

7. Some nouns are plural in form; but in construction, either sin- 
gular or plural ; as, amends, means, news, riches, pains ; and the 
names of sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, (fee. 

8. The article a or an before a singular noun, is dropped before 
the plural ; as, singular, a man ; plural, men. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is meant by number ? How many numbers are there ? 
What does the singular denote ? — the plural ? How is the plural 
commonly formed ? When is the plural formed by adding es? 
How do nouns in y after a consonant, form the plural ? — after a 
vowel ? — nouns in / or fe ? When have proper names a plural ? 
What nouns are mostly singular ? What nouns are plural only? 
What nouns are alike in both numbers ? What nouns are plural 
in form, but either singular or plural in construction ? 

EXEKCISES. 

1. Put the following words in the plural, and give the rule for forming it ; 
thus, " Chair, plural chairs." Rule, " The plural is commonly formed," &c. ; 
" Fox, plural, foxes." R. " Nouns in s, sh," &c. 

Chair, fox, table, cat, dog, horse, house, hand, finger, 
arm, boy, girl ; dish, church, box, miss, sky, body, key, 
day, toy, leaf, knife, wife, loaf. An apple, (Obs. 8, 
above,) a pear, a cherry, a bush, a church, a bell. 

2. Write or spell the singular of the following plurals, and prefix the indefi- 
nite article : 

Flies, boxes, leaves, brushes, knives, marshes, bays, 
tables, bushes, trees, dogs, ducks, geese, wives, duties, 
churches, matches, mice, days, keys, staves, &c. 

3. Tell the plural of the following irregular nouns : 

Man, woman, child, ox, tooth, foot, goose, penny, 
mouse ; father-in-law, mother-in-law, court-martial, fish- 
erman, washerwoman, cousin-german, &c. 

4. Tell the gender and number of the following nouns ; give the plural and 
the rule for forming it; thus, "House,"' a noun, neuter,, singular ; plural, 
houses/' " The plural is commonly formed," &c. 



18 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

House, boy, stone, boat, father, king, knife, aunt, 
emperor, governess, pen, lioness, baron, sister, brother, 
lord, box, bush, rush, goose, bachelor, doe, bride, fly, 
loaf, study, coach, toy, mouth, watch, hero, church, tree, 
way, wife, half, fish, table, mother, apple, cherry, &c. 



LESSON VIII. 
Of the Cases of Nouns. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

Case is the state or condition of a noun with re- 
spect to the other words in a sentence. 

Nouns have three cases; viz., the Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective. 

The Nominative case commonly expresses that 
of which something is said, or declared ; as, The sun 
shines. 

The Possessive denotes that to which something 
belongs ; as, The lady's fan. 

The Objective denotes the object of some action 
or relation; as, James assists Thomas ; they live in 
Albany. 

The nominative and objective of nouns are alike. 

The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, John's. 

When -the plural ends in s, the possessive is formed 
by adding an apostrophe only ; as, Ladies'. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED ; 

Norn. Lady Ladies John 

Poss. Lady's Ladies' John's 

Obj. Lady Ladies John 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Proper names generally want the plural. 

Parsing. — A noun is parsed etymologically, by 
telling its gender, number, and case ; thus, Lady's, a 
noun, feminine, in the possessive singular. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or letters of a similar 
sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in order to 
avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds ; as, " for goodness' 
sake f " for conscience' sake." This however is seldom done, unless 
the word following begins with 5; thus, we do not say " the prince' 
feather," but " the prince's feather." 

2. The objective case, with of before it, is generally equivalent 
to the possessive ; thus, " the rage of the tyrant" and " the tyrant's 
rage," mean the same thing. Sometimes, however, the meaning 
will be different. [See Eng. Gr. 88, 3 : An. & Pr. Gr. 176.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What is case ? How many cases have nouns ? What does the 
nominative case express % — the possessive ? — the objective ? What 
two cases are alike ? How is the possessive singular formed ? — 
the possessive plural ? 

EXEECISES. 
Gender, Number, and Case. 
Tell the gender, number, and case of the following nouns; thus, "Father," 
a noun, masculine, in the nominative singular.* Parse the nouns. 

* In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which is all-import- 
ant, if the 'pupil be taught to say every thing belonging to the noun in the 
fewest words possible; and to say them always in the same order as above. 
For the same reason, the distinction of nouns into proper and common may be 
omitted. And as person has nothing to do with the form of a noun, but only 
with its use; and as nouns are almost always of the third person, the mention 
of person may be omitted ; but when the noun is in the first or the second per- 
son, it should be mentioned. It will also be a profitable exercise for him to 
assign a reason for every part of his description ; thus, Father, a noun, because 
the name of an object ; masculine, because it denotes the male sex ; singular, 
because it denotes but one; plural, fathers. Rule, " The plural is commonly 
formed by adding s to the singular." 



20 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Father, mother, sister's husband, brother's wife, un- 
cle's house, Tom's books, city, virtue's reward, brother's 
widow, Washington the hero, the statesman, the father 
of his country, carpenter, farmer, lawyer's fees, teacher's 
manual, scholar's assistant, ladies' gloves, beans, peas, 
plums, cherries, houses, lands, rivers, mountains, sun, 
moon, stars, &c. 

[Review the whole thoroughly from the beginning, answering accurately alt 
the questions.] 



LESSON IX. 
Of the Article. 

An Article is a word put before a noun, to show 
the manner in which it is used. 

There are two articles, a or an, and the. 

A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it 
shows that the noun is not limited to a particular 
person or thing ; as, a king, i. e., any king. 

The is called the Definite Article, because it shows 
that the noun is limited to a particular person or 
thing ; as, the King, i. e., some particular King. 

A noun without an Article is taken in its widest 
sense ; as, Man is mortal ; i. e., All mankind: Or, 
in an indefinite sense ; as, There are men ^destitute 
of all shame, i. e., some men. 

The i3 sometimes put before a noun denoting the species ; as, the 
oak ; the lion. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A is used before a consonant; as, A book, a house, a tree. 

Also, before words beginning with u long, and eu, because they 
sound as if beginning with the consonant y ; thus, A unit, a use, a 
eulogy — pronounced as if written, a yunit, a yuse, a yeulogy. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

2. An is used before a vowel or silent h ; as, An age, an hour. 

3. A or an is used before the singular number only ; they before 
either the singular or the plural. 

Parsing. — The article is parsed by stating whether 
it is definite or indefinite, and mentioning the noun 
to which it belongs ; thus, 

A book. A is an article, indefinite, and belongs to " book? 

QUESTIONS; 
What is an article ? How many articles are there ? "What is A 
or An called? Why? What is The called? Why? In what 
sense is a noun without' an article taken ? What is A used before ? 
What is An used before ? How is the article parsed ? 

EXERCISES. 
Is it proper to say a man, or an man ? and why ? 
a apple, or an apple ? and why ? 
a house, or an house ? and why ? 
a hour, or an hour ? and why ? 
Prefix the indefinite article in the proper form, to the following words: 

Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, 
owl, egg, ear, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young 
man, word, book, pot, bench, open wagon, round stone, 
old hat, penny trumpet, ice house, -&c. 

Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change ; parse the articles : 

An cup, an door, a apple, an pear, an hat, an wig, an 
eulogy, a honor, an crow, a ostrich, an pen, a ugly 
beast, an pretty beast, an pretty thing, an huge monster, 
a upper room, &c. 



LESSON X. 
Of the Adjective. 
An Adjective is a word used to qualify a sub- 
stantive ; as, A good boy ; a square box ; ten dollars. 
He is poor. To lie is base. 



22 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Adjectives denoting number, are called Numeral 
adjectives. Of these there are two classes ; the Car- 
dinal and the Ordinal. 

The Cardinal are one, two, three, &c. and express 
how many — written in figures, thus, 1, 2, 3, &c. 

The Ordinal are first, second, third, &c, and ex- 
press which one of a number — written in figures, 
thus, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, &c. 

ILLUSTRATION.— A noun,or the name of a thing being mentioned brings be- 
fore the mind the idea of the tning itself. Thus, the word "horse," for exam- 
ple, suggests the idea of the animal so called. But if we wish to describe or point 
out a particular horse more definitely and to distinguish it from others of the same 
species, we connect with the name or noun a word denoting some property or 
quality by which it may be known or distinguished ; as, " a little horse ; " " an 
old horse ; " "a black horse," &c. Words used for this purpose are called Adjec- 
tives, because they add to or connect with the noun the idea of some quality or 
property belonging to it. Sometimes several of these may be joined with the 
same noun ; as, when we say, " a littlt old black horse j" "a smooth white round 
stone ;" " the good old way." 

In any phrase or sentence, the adjectives qualifying a noun may generally be 
found by prefixing the phrase, " What kind of," to the noun in the form of a ques- 
tion; as, What kind of a horse 7 What kind of a stone? What kind of a way? 
The word containing the answer to the question is an adjective. 

It may assist the "young beginner" also to remember that a word which 
makes sense with the word thing after it, is an adjective ; thus, good, bad, little, 
round, may be adjectives, because we can say, a good thing, a bad thing, a little 
thing, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Nouns become adjectives, when they are used before other 
nouns, to express a quality or property belonging to them; as, a 
gold ring; a silver cup; sea water; a hay field; a. flower garden. 

2. Adjectives are often used as nouns; as, " God rewards the 
good and punishes the bad." u The virtuous are the most hap- 
py." Adjectives thus used are regarded as plural, because they 
denote more than one. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is an adjective ? What are adjectives denoting number 
called? What is a numeral adjective? How many classes of 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

numeral adjectives are there ? What are the cardinal numbers ? 
What do they express ? What are the ordinal numbers ? What 
do they express? When do nouns become adjectives? Are ad- 
jectives ever used as nouns? Of what number are they consid- 
ered 2 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following exercise, let the pupil first point out the nouns, and then the 
adjectives ; and tell how he knows them to be so. 

• A round table, a pretty dog, a little mouse, a low- 
chair, a small book, a sharp knife, white paper, dirty 
books, ugly faces, a beautiful flower, a rich man, fresh 
fish, a wild horse, a short man, an old hat, a fierce dog, 
a good pen, a wise king, an honest man, tame rabbits, 
a fine day, a sw^eet apple, a long stick, a little handsome 
old woman, a thick square book, a large w r hite cat, a 
new book, a clean w T hite frock, a full cup, an empty 
mug, a warm room, a wet towel, a cold rainy night, a 
cloudy sky, windy weather, hard frost, deep snow. 

2. In the above Exercises, let the pupil take each noun and prefix to it as many 
adjectives as he can think of, so as to make sense : as, for example, " table," 
high table, low table, long table, &c. &c, and in reciting put the emphasis on the 
adjective. 

3. Let him take each adjective, and add to it as many nouns as he can think of 
so as to make sense ; as, "round," a round ball, a round hole, a round Iimise, a 
round cake, etc., and put the emphasis on the noun. 



LESSON XI. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and- answer the questions,] 

Comparison is that property of the adjective by 
which it expresses quality in different degrees in ob- 
jects compared. 



24 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; 
the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 

The Positive expresses the quality simply; 

The Comparative expresses the quality in a higher or lower 
degree in one object than in another ; 

The Superlative expresses the quality in the highest or lowest 
degree in one object compared with two or more. 

In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative is 
usually formed by adding er to the Positive 5 and the 
Superlative, by adding est; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest ; 
wise, wiser, wisest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are usually 
compared by prefixing more and most ; as, beauti- 
ful, more beautiful, most beautiful., 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Dissyllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by 
er and est; as, able, abler, ablest. After a consonant y is chang- 
ed into i before er and est; as, dry, drier, driest; happy, happier, 
happiest; But y with a vowel before it, is not changed; as, gay, 
gayer, gayest. 

2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the 
end of the word,- as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, fore- 
most, hindmost, utmost. 

3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant preceded by 
a single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, hot, 
hotter, hottest. 

4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz: 

1st. Such as denote number; as, one, two; third, fourth. 

2d. figure or shape; as, circular, square. 

3d. posture, or position; as, perpendicular) 

horizontal. 
4th. Those of an absolute or superlative signification; as, 

true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, &c. 

5. Some adjectives are compared irregularly, as follows: 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



25 



ADJECTIVES COMPARED IRREGULARLY. 



Positive. 






Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 






better 


best 


Bad, evil 


Ci- 


ill 


worse 


worst 


Little 






less 


least 


Much or 


rri any 


more 


most 


Late 






later 


latest or last 


Near 






nearer 


nearest or next 


Far 






farther 


farthest 


Fore 






former 


foremost or first 


Old 






older or elder 


oldest or eldest 



6. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to 
those that are numbered. Elder and eldest are applied to persons 
only ; older and oldest, to either persons or things. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is comparison ? How many degrees of comparison are 
there? What does the positive denote ? — the comparative? — the 
superlative? How are monosyllables compared? — words of more 
than one syllable ? — dissyllables in le after a mute ? — in y after a 
consonant? What sort of adjectives double the final consonant 
before er and est ? What adjectives are not compared ? What 
adjectives are compared irregularly? 

Parsing. — Adjectives are parsed by stating their 
class (if numerals), the degree of comparison, and 
the nouns which they qualify. If not compared, it 
should be so stated. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the adjectives in the following exercise ; parse them ; compare 
them; thus, a good father ; "Good," an adjective, positive degree, qualifies "fa. 
ther," compared irregularly, good, better, best. 

2. Point out the nouns, and parse them by telling their gender, number, and 
case, as directed ; thus, " father." a noun, masculine, in the nomiuative singular. 

A good father, a wiser man, a more beautiful girl, 
3 



26 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

wild horses, young colts, a sweeter apple, the wisest 
prince, green trees, the honest farmers, the most virtu- 
ous people, the richer tradesman, the better scholar, the 
tallest girl, the finer sheep, large oranges, the merriest 
fellows, the old soldier, pretty dogs, an ugly calf, the 
tamest rabbits, the little mouse, the longest stick, a 
wider table, a most excellent thing, the highest house, 
the most fruitful garden. 

Numerals. — Four men, the fourth day, six days, the 
seventh day, 365 days, ten horses, the first time, of four 
houses the first is of wood, the second of stone, the third 
and the fourth of brick. 

3. Turn back and go over the adjectives in the exercise, Lesson X- in the same 
way. 

4. In both exercises, change singular nouns into plural, and plural into singular; 
give the rule for the plural, and then read the phrase so changed ; thus, Father, 
pi. fathers. " The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular," good 
fathers 



LESSON XII. 

Of the Pronoun. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies. 

Pronouns may be divided into four classes ; Personal, 
Relative, Interrogative, and Jldjective. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Pronouns are used simply to avoid the too frequent and 
consequently disagreeable repetition of the nouns for which they stand. Thus, 
instead of saying, John is a good boy ; John is diligent in John s studies ; we use 
the pronoun, and say as above, " John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." 
In the use of pronouns, care should be taken to arrange the sentence in such a 
way as to leave no doubt to what noun they refer. 

The four classes of pronouns are used in different ways, as will be seen under 
each. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



27 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns are those which distinguish the 
person by their form. They are either simple or com- 
pound. 

The simple personal pronouns are 1, thou, he, she, 
it; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

I is of the first person, and denotes the speaker. 
Thou is of the second person, and denotes the person addressed. 
He, she, it, are of the third person, and denote the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. Poss. Obj. 

1. m. or /. I mine me 

2. m. or /. Thou thine thee 

3. masc. He his him 
3. fern. She hers her 
3. neut. It its it 



Nom. 


Poss. 


Obj. 


We 


ours 


US 


You 


yours 


you 


They 


theirs 


them 


They 


theirs 


them 


They 


theirs 


them 



OBSERVATIONS. 

1. My self ', thy self j himself, herself, itself, with their plurals, 
ourselves, yourselves, themselves, are called Compound personal 
pronouns, used in the nominative and objective cases. In the 
nominative, they are emphatic, and are added to their respective 
personal pronouns, or are used instead of them; as, u I myself 
did it;" " himself shall come." In the objective, they are reflex* 
ive, showing that the agent is also the object of his own act; as, 
11 Judas went and hanged himself. " 

2. In proclamations, charters) editorial articles, and the like, 
we is frequently applied to one person. 

3. In addressing persons, youis commonly put both for the sin- 
gular and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is 
used only in addresses to the Deity, or any important object in 
nature; or to mark special emphasis; or, in the language of con- 
tempt. The plural form, ye, is now but seldom used. 

4. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the 
third person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the 



2S PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

third person singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons; as, 
It is J, it is we, it is you, it is they,- It was she, &c 

5 The possessive case of the pronoun cannot, like the pos- 
sessive of the noun, be followed by the name of the thing pos- 
sessed. Thus, we can say, Mary's book, but not " hers book;" 
and yet we can say equally well, " It is Mary's," or, " it is 
hers." In both of these last expressions, the name of the thing 
possessed is not expressed but implied. [SeeGr. Ap. XIV. An. 241.] 

6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written her's, 
it's, our's, your's, their's. 

Parsing. — The personal pronouns may be parsed 
briefly thus ; I, the first personal pronoun, mascu- 
line (or feminine), in the nominative singular. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a pronoun? How are pronouns divided? What is a 
personal pronoun ? Why is it called personal ? What are they ? 
Decline the first — the second — the third. Of what person is I? — 
thou? — he, she, it? What does the first person denote? — the 
second ? — the third ? To what class do myself, thyself, &c. be- 
long ? In what cases are they used ? How are they applied in 
the nominative ? — in the objective ? How is you applied ? — thou ? 
—it ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Go over the following list of pronouns and tell their person. Go over them 
again and tell their gender : again, and tell their number : again, and tell their case: 
and lastly, tell their gender, number, and case, together. 

I, thou> we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, 
thee, them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, 
I, me, them, us, we, thou, thine, ye, ours, yours. 

2. Point out the pronouns in the following exercise. Parse them by telling their 
person, gender, number, and case; thus, "me," a pron. Ist.pers. masc. sing, the 
objective. 

3. Point out the nouns and parse them ; the adjectives and parse them. Com- 
pare them. 

4. Read over each sentence and tell what each of the pronouns stands for: 
thus, me stands for the speaker ; you for the person spoken to, &c. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



29 



Give me the pears you bought of him ; I like them 
better than the apple he bought; it was sour. She 
told us what we said to her and they heard her. Put . 
it on, will you ? He likes them because they are sweet. 
Take them to John. 1 gave them to her. We will do 
it, if you wish. The men said they would do it. The 
girl said she did not know them. The boy thought he 
knew them. You and I went with them' to meet her 
after she had seen him. He and I can do it, though 
you cannot. James bought that book ; it is therefore 
his, and not hers. 

5. Take any easy reading lesson, and go over it in the same way. 



LESSON XIII. 
Of Relative Pronouns. 

[Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

1. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and 

connects its clause with, a noun "or pronoun before it, 

called the antecedent; as, " The master who taught us." 

The antecedent is commonly a noun or pronoun; sometimes a 
clause of a sentence; as, 
The boy who reads: 
He who does well, will be rewarded; 
James is sick , which accounts for his absence. 

•ILLUSTRATION. — The proper use of the relative is, to connect a denning or lim- 
iting clause with an antecedent noun or pronoun for the purpose of farther describ- 
ing it. The relative clause serves the same purpose as an adjective or other de- 
fining word, and consequently must always stand in the same sentence with the 
antecedent or word described. Indeed, an adjective will sometimes be equiva- 
lent to the relative and its clause ; thus, " The man who is good is happy ; " and 
" the good man is happy," mean the same tiling. Here the relative clause, " who 
is good," limits and describes the word man preceding it. It is not any man, nor 
every man, nor the rich man, but the good man, that is happy. 

2. The relative pronouns are who, which, that, ami 



30 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

what. Who and which are alike in both numbers; 
and are thus declined : 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plur. 

Norn. Who Which 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Obj. Whom Which. 

3. Who is applied to persons ; as, the boy who 

reads: 

And also to inferior animals, and things without life, when 
they are represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

4. Which is applied to inferior animals,and things 
without life ; as, the dog which barks ; the book 
which was lost: 

And also to collective nouns composed of persons,- as, "the 
court of Spain which;" " the company which." And likewise 
after the name of a person used merely as a word; as, " The 
court of Queen Elizabeth, which was but another name for pru- 
dence and economy." 

Which was formerly applied to persons as well as things, and 
is so used in the common version of the Scriptures. 

5. That is often used as a relative, to prevent the 
too frequent repetition of who or which. It is inde- 
clinable, and applied both to persons and things. 

6. WAa't is applied to things only, and is never used 
but when the antecedent is omitted ; as, " This is what 
I wanted"=£Aa£ which I wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 

1. Whoever, whosoever, whatever, and whatsoever, are also 
used as compound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and 
a general,ir indefinite antecedent; as, " Whosoever committeth 
sin, is the servant of sin;" that is, "any one," or "every one 
who committeth sin, &c." " Whatsoever things are of good rev 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 31 

port;" i.e. •* All things (without exception) which are of good 
report.'' [See Gr. § 59, Rule m. An. «fc Pr. Gr. 752.] 

2 Which and what are sometimes used as adjectives, and 
have a noun following them; as, " Tell me what books you are 
reading;'' " Which things are an allegory." In this sense, which 
applies either to persons or things, and in meaning is equivalent 
to this or these. 

3. Who, and also which and what, without a noun following, 
are sometimes used as indefinite pronouns; as, I do not know 
who will be our next President. 

Of Interrogative Pronouns. 

In asking questions, who, which, and what are 
called Interrogative pronouns. 

As interrogatives, viho is applied to persons only; 
which and what, either to persons or things. What 
admits of no variation. 

Parsing. — The relative is parsed by stating its 
gender, number, case, and antecedent; (the gender 
and number being always the same as those of the 
antecedent) thus, u The boy who. 5 ' — u Who" is a 
relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singu- 
lar, and refers to " boy" as its antecedent. 

QUESTIONS. 
"What is a relative pronoun ? What is the word to which it re- 
lates called? What is the proper use of the relative pronoun? 
What are the relative pronouns? What is who applied to? 
What is which applied to ? Why is that used as a relative ? To 
what is it applied? What sort of a relative is what? What 
does it include? What sort of words are whoever, &c. ? When 
which and what are followed by nouns, what part of speech are 
they ? What are the interrogative pronouns ? Why are they 
called interrogative 7 As an interrogative, what is who applied 



32 PRACTICAL LESSONS UN 

to? — which? — what ? In parsing the relative, what is mention- 
ed ? How are the gender and number of the relative known ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Is it proper to say — the man who, or the man which? why? 

the dog who, or the dog which? why? 

the tree who, or the tree which ? why ? 

•the family who, or the family which ? why ? 

2. In the following sentences, point oat the relative, and the word to which it 
relates ; also the interrogatives. 

3. What is the use of the relative in the first sentence'.' in the second? in tho 
third? &c. (See Illustration, p. 29.) 

The boy who studies will improve. I love the man 
who tells the truth, but all hate him who deals in false- 
hood. Do you remember the man whom we met? 
There is the book which you lost. It is the same book 
that you bought. That is the lady who has been kind 
to us, and whose hand is ever open to the poor. It is 
the hand of the diligent that maketh rich. He that 
giveth to the poor lendeth to the Lord. The temple 
which Solomon built. Who gave you that book, which 
you prize so much ? Which house is yours ? He who 
preserves me, to whom I owe my being, whose I am, 
and whom I serve, is eternal. 



LESSON XIV. 
Of Adjective Pronouns. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

There are four sorts of Adjective pronouns; viz., 
the Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and 
Indefinite. 

1. The possessive pronouns are such as denote 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

possession or property. They are my, thy, his, her 
our, your, their, its, own. 

2. The distributive pronouns represent objects as 
taken separately. They are each, every, either, 
neither. 

3. The demonstrative pronouns point out objects de- 
finitely. They are this and that, with their plurals, 
these and those. 

4. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
things indefinitely. They are none, any, all, such, 
whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are de- 
clined like nouns. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. These pronouns are called adjective, because like adjec- 
tives they either are, or may be, followed by a noun. 

2. Possessive pronouns have the same meaning as the possess- 
ive case of the personal pronouns to which they relate, but axe 
used differently. The possessive pronoun must always have a 
noun after it, the possessive case of the personal, never, as it al- 
ways refers to a noun previously expressed; thus, 

Possessive Pronoun. Possessive Case. 

This is my book This book is mine 

That is her pen That pen is hers 

This is your hat This hat is yours 

It is their house The house is theirs 

Note. Own is acldsd to another possessive to make it emphatic; as "my own;" 
u their own," " the boy's own book." 

3. His and her, followed by a noun, are possessive pronouns; 
not followed by a noun, they are personal pronouns. 

4. That is sometimes a demonstrative, sometimes a relative, 
and sometimes a conjunction; thus, 

Bern. That book is mine. 

Rel. It is the same that I bought. 

Conj . I read, that I may learn. 



34 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

5 Among indefinites may also be reckoned such words as no, 
few, many j several, and the like; — the compounds whoever, what- 
ever, whichsoever, &c, and who, which, and what, in responsive 
sentences. 

6. None is used in both numbers; but it cannot be joined to a 
noun. 

Parsing. — Adjective pronouns are parsed by stat- 
ing their class, and the noun to which they belong. 
In demonstratives, state also the number; thus, 

" My book." My is a possessive adjective pronoun; refers to 
" book." 

QUESTIONS. 
How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there ? Name them. 
Why called adjective pronouns ? What is a possessive pronoun ? 
Name the possessive pronouns ? What is a distributive pronoun ? 
Name them — A demonstrative pronoun? Name them — An in- 
definite pronoun ? Name them. In w^hat are possessive pro- 
nouns and the possessive case of personal pronouns the same ? 
In what do they differ ? Give an example of the use of each 
How is "own" used? When are his and her possessives ?— 
when personals? In how many different ways is " that" used* 
How is "none" used? How are adjective pronouns parsed ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the adjective pronouns, and parse them ; 
the nouns, and parse them : 

My book, her shoes, your horse, their father, his 
brother, every hour, that table, these quills. This is 
my book ; that book is yours. Where is my hat ? These 
apples are good ; give some to your brothers. I will 
give one to each. I have given them all away, every 
one. Every day try to do good to some person. This 
book will do as well as that one. Every boy should 
keep his own books. Do good to all men — injury to 
none 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

LESSON XV 

EXERCISES 
On Nouns, Articles, Adjectives^ and Pronouns. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out the articles and parse them;— the nouius 
and parse them; — the adjectives and parse them;— the pronouns and parse them- 

I found my hat upon your table ; but where is yours ? 
Who put that, glove in my cap ? Have you seen .the 
book which my father gave to me ? That rod of yours 
is longer than mine, but not so long as John's. Those 
trees have lost their leaves. Every book on that shelf 
is mine ; I will give you a list of them. Keep this 
knife for my sake; it is a good one. All men are mor- 
tal ; time waits for no one ; a wise man will improve 
every moment to some useful purpose. An idle man 
will come to poverty ; but he that is diligent increases 
his store. They that walk with the wise shall be wise ; 
but a companion of fools shall be destroyed. 

[1. Review thoroughly from Lesson X., answering promptly and accurately all 
the questions. 

2. Review from the beginning, reciting accurately all the definitions and rules, 
end answering the questions. This may require two or three recitations.] 



LESSON XVI. 

Of Verbs. 

1. A Verb is a word used to express the act, beings 
or state of its subject; as, I write; he is; time flies 

2. Verbs are of two kinds; Transitive and Intran- 
sitive. 



36 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3. A Transitive Verb expresses an act done by 
one person or thing to another ; as 5 James strikes the 
table ; The table is struck by James. 

4. An Intransitive Verb expresses the heing, or 
state of its subject, or an act not done to another; as, 
I am, he sleeps 5 you run. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The use of the verb in simple sentences is, to affirm or de- 
clare. That of which it affirms or declares is called its subject y 
or nominative. 

2. Transitive verbs include all those which express an act that 
passes over from the actor to an object acted upon; as, He loves 
us. Here "He" is the actor, "loves" expresses the act, and 
us, the object loved, or acted upon. The same thing can be ex- 
pressed by another form; thus, " We are loved by him." Of 
these two forms of the verb, the first is called the active voice, 
and the second, the passive voice. 

Intransitive verbs include all verbs not transitive, whether they 
express action or not; and they have only one form; namely, that 
of the active voice; as, I am) you walk; they run. A few have 
the passive form, but the sense is the same in both; as, "I am 
■J07PX;" and, " I have come." 

3. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, by add- 
ing a noun of the same, or similar signification with themselves, 
as an object; thus, intransitive, I run; transitive, I run a race. 

4. The same verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and 
sometimes in an intransitive sense; thus, transitive, " Charity 
thinheth no evil; ,; intransitive, " Think oq me." 

5. Transitive and intransitive verbs may be distinguished by 
the sense, as follows: 

1st. A transitive active verb requires an object after it to com- 
plete the sense; as, The boy studies grammar. An intransi- 
tive verb requires no object after it, but the sense is complete 
without it; as. He sits, you ride. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. H7 

2d. Every transitive active verb can be changed into the passive 
form,- thus, "James strikes the table," can be changed into 
" The table is struck by James." But the intransitive verb 
cannot be so changed; thus, I smile, cannot be changed into I 
am smiled. 

Sd.^In the use of the transitive verb, there are always three things 
implied; the actor, the act, and the object acted upon In the 
use of the intransitive, there are only tvjo — the subject or thing 
spoken of, and the state, or action attributed to it. 

ILLUSTRATION.— The verb is the most important part of speech. It is a 
necessaiy word in every sentence. Without it, we can neither affirm nor deny, 
nor express any fact or thought. It was therefore called the Verb, that is, the 
icord, by way of eminence, or of all others the most important As we wish to 
express an act or state in a great variety of ways; a3 present, past, future, actual, 
contingent, conditional, &c, so there is a great variety of forms assumed by the 
verb in order to express those things. It is, therefore, very necessary for the pupil 
to be well acquainted with this part of speech. At this stage, two things must be 
attended to ; both of them very important. 

1. The first thing is, to distinguish the verb from every other part of speech. 
This can easily be done,, if the pupil will only remember, that every word that 
tells us what a person or thing does, or what is done to a person or tiling, is a verb. 
Tnus, when we say, "John writes ;" "the boys study;" "the dog was killed;" 
we know that " ivrites" is a verb, because it tells us what "John" does; that 
" study " is a verb, because it tells us what " the boys " do ; and that " was kill- 
ed" is a verb, because it tells us what was done to ''the dog;" and so of others. 

2. The second thing is to know when a verb is transitive and when intransi- 
tive. Now, when the verb tells what one person or thing does to another, or what 
is done to one person or tiling by another, the verb is transitive. Thus, when it 
is said "James eats apples;" we know, first, that "eats" is a verb, because it 
tells what James does ; and secondly, that it is transitive, because it tells what 
James does to the apples. 

But when that which a person or thmg does, is not done to another person or 
thing, the verb is intransitive. Thus, in the sentence, "James runs," we know 
that "runs" is a verb, because it tells what James does; and that it is intransi- 
tive, because what James does is not done to any other person or thing. 

3. Verbs that denote merely to be or exist, are always intransitive. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a verb ? How many classes of verbs are there? "What 
is a transitive verb? — an intransitive? "What is the use of the 
verb in simple sentences ? What is the subject of a verb ? "What 
does the word transitive mean ? — intransitive? How many voices 
has the transitive verb i — the intransitive ? How do you know 

4 



38 PRACTICAL LESSONS I JS 

which word in a sentence is a verb ? How do you know whether 
it is transitive or intransitive ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, point out the verbs and tell how you know them 
to be verbs; thus, "learn" is a verb, because it tells us what "boys" do ; "rides" 
is a verb, because it tells us what " a man" does. &c. 

2. Tell whicli verbs are transitive, and which intransitive, and how you know 
them to be so ; thus, " learn" is transitive, because it tells what boys do to lessons ; 
" rides " is intransitive, because what " a man " does, is not done to any other 
person or thing. 

Boys learn lessons. A man rides. We read a book. 
My dog barks. The fire burns. The fire burns me. 
He took their apples. You saw them. We touched it. 
They strike her. I threw a stone at his window. They 
killed my rabbit. The horses eat their corn. The cows 
drink water. I can ride well. A ride improves the 
health. That man walks fast. A long walk tires me. 
I love her and you. 

In the following sentences, it takes two, and sometimes three words to make the 
verb ; and these two or three are always parsed together as one word. 

I will water the garden. James can write a letter. 
Yon may ride on my horse. Kobert will give a book to 
you. Yes, he will give you a book. You must light 
the candle. Your father has sold his horse. I have 
bought him. John will brush your coat. He should 
have brushed it before. James will have written his 
letter before night. He may have written it already. 



LESSON XVII. 

Division of Verbs. 

[Review thoroughly the preceding Lesson.] 

1. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Reg- 
ular j Irregular, and Defective. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 

2. A Regular verb is one that forms its Past tense 
in the Indicative active, and its Past participle by 
adding ed to the Present; as ? Present, love; Past, 
loved; Past participle, loved. 

3. An Irregular verb is one that does not form 
its Past tense in the Indicative active, and its Past 
participle by adding ed to the Present ; as, Present, 
write; Past, wrote; Past participle, written. 

A Defective Verb is one in which some of the 
parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly 
Auxiliary and Impersonal verbs. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 
The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, by the help of 
which verbs are principally inflected, are the follow- 
ing, which, as auxiliaries, are used only in the pres- 
ent and the past tense ; viz : 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, most 

Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, — . 

The verb to be is used as an auxiliary in all its tenses. 
Am, do, and have, are also principal verbs 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The auxiliary (or helping) verbs are so called, because, by 
their help, the verb is enabled to express varieties of time and 
manner of acting or being, which it could not do without them. 
The auxiliary always stands before its verb, and the two are re- 
garded in parsing as one word; as, I will write; he has written, 
we may write, &c. 

2. Of the auxiliaries, shall implies duty or obligation; will, 
purpose or resolution; may, liberty; can, ability. The past tense 
of these verbs is should, would, might, could; but still they ex- 
press time very indefinitely. 



40 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3 In affirmative sentences, will,' in the first person, intimates 
resolution and promising; as, "I will go;" in the second and 
third, it commonly foretels; as, " You will be happy." 

Shall, in the first person, only foretels; as, "I' shall go to- 
morrow;" — in the second and third, it promises, commands, or 
threatens; as, (i Thou shalt not steal." 

QUESTIONS, 
How are verbs divided in respect of form ? What is a regular 
verb ? — an irregular verb ? — a defective verb ? What are the prin- 
cipal defective verbs? Why are auxiliary verbs so called? 
What verbs are principal verbs as well as auxiliary? How 
are the auxiliaries shall and will distinguished? 

EXERCISES. 

1. rut the following regular verbs into the Past tense and Past participle: 

Fear, love, look, hope, show, learn, move, wash, clean, 
walk, desire, return, oblige, form, force, punish, support, 
turn, touch, disturb, place, try, deny, cry, delay. 

2. Change the following verbs from the Past tense into the Present : 

Marked, protected, composed, favored, turned, hated, 
mixed, believed, wounded, rushed, preached, hunted, 
crushed, preached, warned, pleaded, loved, ended. 

3. In the following list tell which verbs are regular and which are irregular ;— 
and why. 



Present. 


Past. 


. Past Participle, 


Spoil 


spoiled 


spoiled 


Go 


went 


gone 


Take 


took 


taken 


Write 


wrote 


written 


Hope 


hoped 


hoped 


Run 


ran 


run 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Spy 


spied 


spied 


Obey 


obeyed 


obeyed 



ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 41 

LESSON XVIIL 

Inflection of Verbs. 

[Review the two preceding Lessons.] 

To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Per sons ;— also Participles. 

OF VOICE. 

Voice is a particular form of the verb which 
shows the relation of the subject, or thing spoken 
of, to the action expressed by the verb. 

In English, the transitive verb has always two 
voices; the Active and the Passive. 

1. The Active voice represents the subject of 

the verb as acting upon some object; as, James 

strikes the table. 

Here the verb " strikes," in the active voice, indicates what its 
subject, " James," does to the object, table. 

2. The Passive voice represents the subject of 

the verb as acted upon by some person or thing; as, 

The table is struck by James. 

Here the verb lc is struck," in the passive voice, indicates 
what is done to the subject, " table," by James. 

3. The passive voice is formed by adding the past 
participle to the auxiliary verb u to be," through all 
its moods and tenses. [See Lesson XXVII.] 

4. Intransitive verbs have not a passive voice : A 

few admit a passive form, but not a passive sense; 

thus, I am come, which means the same thing as, I 

have come. 

4* 



42 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

5 When a verb, usually intransitive, is made 
transitive, [Less. XVI. Obs. 3 J it is then capable 
of a passive voice; as, u My race is run." 

ILLUSTRATION.— Both the active and the passive voice express precisely the 
game act, but each in. a different way. With the active voice. the subject (that is. 
the person or thing spoken of,) does the act, or is active ; with the passive voice, 
the subject is acted upon, or is passive. The words active and passive then strictly 
belong to the subject, but are properly used to distinguish those voices or forms of 
the verb which show that the subject acts or is acted upon : that is, the form of 
the verb which represents its subject as active, is called the Active voice ; and 
that which represents its subject as passive, is called the Passive voice. 

Remembering then that the subject or nominative of a verb, is the person or 
thing spoken of, when, in any sentence, we see that that subject acts, we know that 
the verb is in the active voice; thus, when we say, " Caesar conquered Gaul," we 
see that "Caesar," the person spoken of, is represented as acting, and therefore, 
" conquered" is in the active voice. Again, when we say, " Gaul was conquered 
by Caesar," the subject or thing spoken of is Gaul; it is represented as acted 
upon, and therefore, "was conquered" is in the passive voice. 

QUESTIONS. 
What belongs to the inflection of verbs ? What is meant by 
Voice ? How many voices has the transitive verb in English ? 
What are they ? How does the active voice represent its sub- 
ject? How does the passive voice represent it? How is the 
passive voice formed? What voice have intransitive verbs? 
Have they ever a passive form ? Have they ever a passive sense ? 
When intransitive verbs are made transitive, can they be used in 
the passive voice ? 

EXERCISES. 

In each of the following sentences, the pupil may be questioned, as on the first, 
in the following manner: Who is the person spoken of in this sentence? Ans. 
John. What is said of John? Ans. — He studies. Does the word studies repre- 
sent John as*acting,or as acted upon? Ans. — As acting. In what voice then is 
"studies"? Ans. — Active voice. Change the sentence so as to make "gram- 
mar" the thing spoken of, and express the same meaning. Ans. — " Grammar is 
studied by John." Analyze this sentence in the same way as the other. 

John studies grammar. Cain slew Abel. Noah built 
the ark. The temple was built by Solomon. Colum- 
bus discovered America. Pride ruins thousands. Mos> 
men are governed by custom. I have written a letter 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 43 

LESSON XIX 

Of the Moods. 

(Review the preceding Lesson, and answer the questions.] 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the 
signification of the verb. 

Verbs have five moods; namely, the Indicative, 
Potential^ Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. 

1. The Indicative mood declares the fact expressed 
by the verb simply, and without limitation ; as, He 
loves; He is loved. 

2. The Potential mood declares, not the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, but only its possibility ; or the 
liberty, power , will, or obligation, of the subject with 
respect to it ; as, 

The wind may blow; We may walk or ride; I can swim; He 
would not stay; You should obey your parents. 

3. The Subjunctive mood represents the fact ex- 
pressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, 
desirable, or contingent ; as, 

u If thy presence go not with us carry us not up hence." — " 
that he were wise!" 

This mood is subjoined to another verb, and dependent on it. 

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, 
entreats, or permits; as, 

Do this; Remember thy Creator; Hear, O my people; Go thy 
way for this time. 

5. The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a gen- 
eral manner, without any distinction of number or 
person, and commonly has to before it; as, To love 



44 FRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

OBSERVATIONS. 
I The subjunctive mood differs from the indicative only in the 
second and third persons singular of the present tense. The verb 
" to 6e" differs also in the past tense. 

2. The imperative mood, strictly speaking^ has only the second 
person, singular and plural,- because, in commanding, exhorting, 
&c. the language of address is always used,- thus, " Let him 
love," is equivalent to, "Let thou him love;" where Let is the 
proper imperative, and love the infinitive governed by it. [See 
Lesson LVIII. 1, 2.] 

3. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, 
having the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive; 
and hence it is used either as the subject of another verb, or as 
the object after it. [See Lesson XLL, Sub-Rule II., and Less. 
XLII. Obs. Introd. to An. &Pr.Gr. Less. LXYI, Sub-rules land 2.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What is mood ? How many moods are there ? How does the 
Indicative mood express an action or state? — the Potential? — the 
Subjunctive? — the Imperative? — the Infinitive? In what parts 
does the Subjunctive differ from the Indicative ? How many per- 
sons has the Imperative mood ? How may the Infinitive mood 
be considered ? Asa verbal noun, what cases has it ? 

N. B. Exercises on this and the following Lesson will be bet- 
ter understood after the pupil has gone through Lesson XXIII. 
They are therefore omitted here. 



LE.SSON XX. 
Of Tenses ) or Distinctions of Time, 

[Review the two preceding Lessons.] 

Tenses are certain forms of the verb, which serve 
to point out the distinctions of time. 

Time is naturally divided into Present, Past, and Future; 
and an action may be represented, either as incomplete and con- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

tiiming, or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise 
to six tenses, only two of which are expressed in English by a 
distinct form of the verb. The others are formed by the aid of 
auxiliary verbs ; thus. 

Preset 5 Action continuing; as, I love, I do love, I am loving. 
j: " ' } Action completed; a?, I have loved. 

Past $ Action continuing; as, I loved, I did love, I was loving. 

( Action completed; as, I had loved. 
Future \ Action continuing; as, I shall or will love. 

I Action completed; as, I shall have loved. 

The tenses in English are six ; namely, the Pre- 
sent, the Present-perfect , the Past, the Past-perfect, 
the Future, and the Future-perfect. 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Indicative mood has all the six tenses 3 they 
are used as follows : 

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on a* 
the present time ; as 5 I love you. 

2. The Present-perfect tense represents an ac- 
tion or event as completed at the present time ; as, 
" John has cut his finger." " I have sold my horse." 
" I have done nothing this week." 

3. The Past tense expresses what took place in 
past time expressed or implied \ as, u God said, let 
there be light ; ?3 " The ship sailed when the mail 
arrived." 

4. The Past-perfect tense represents an action or 
event as completed at or before a certain past time ; as 3 
u I had walked six miles that day f " All the judges 
had taken their places before Sir Roger came." 



46 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

5. The Future tense expresses what will take 
place in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and 
your hearts shall rejoice." 

6. The Future-perfect intimates that an action 
or event will be completed at or before a certain 
time yet future ; as, I shall have got my lesson before 
ten o'clock to-morrow. 

Note. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called Sim- 
ple tenses ; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound tenses. 

TENSES OF THE OTHER MOODS. 

7. The Potential mood has four tenses ; the Present, 
the Present-perfect, the Past, and the Past-perfect. 

The tenses in this mood indicate the time, not of the act expressed 
by the verb, but of the liberty, power, will, or obligation, expressed 
by the auxiliary, or sign of the tense ; thus, " I may write," does 
not express the act of writing as present, but only the liberty to 
Write, expressed by the auxiliary may. 

Hence the time expressed by the verb in this mood is less definite, 
and depends not so much on the tense as on other words with which it 
stands connected. This is the case especially with the Past tense. 
[See Gr. § 20, An, & Pr. Gr. 428-432.] 

8. The Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, has 
only the present tense. The verb to be has the pre- 
sent and the past. 

9. The Imperative mood may always be regarded 
as present ; i. e. the command, &c. is present, though 
the doing of the act commanded is future. 

10. The Infinitive mood has two tenses ; the Pre- 
sent and the Perfect. 

11. Participles have three tenses; the Present, 
the Past, and the Perfect ; as, Loving, loved, having 
loved. See Analytical and Practical Grammar, 455. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 

1. The present tense is used to express, 1st — the simple existence 
of the fact ; as, " He speaks." 2d — what is habitual or always true ; 
as, " He takes snuff." 3d. In historical narration, it is used for the 
past ; as, " Csesar leaves Gaul," for " Caesar left Gaul." 

2. The Present-perfect is used, 1st To express what has taken 
place at the present time, or in a period of time of which the 
present forms a part ; as, " My father has arrived." 2d — To express 
an act or state continued through a period of time reaching to, and 
including the present ; as, " He has [now] studied six months." 3d. 
— To express an act long since completed, when the reference is not 
to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished as still existing ; as, 
" Cicero has written orations." 

3. The time indicated by the Past tense is regarded as entirely 
past, however near ; as, " I saw him a moment ago." It is also used 
to express what was customary in r>ast time ; as, " She attended 
church regularly." 

4. The Past tenses of the Potential, and the Subjunctive mood, are 
less definite in regard to time, than the same tenses in the Indicative. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are tenses ? How is time naturally divided ? In each of these, 
how may an action or state be represented ? How many tenses are 
there in the English verb? How many has the Indicative mood ? What 
are they ? What does the Present tense express ? — the Present-per- 
fect ?— the Past ?— Past-perfect ?— the Future ?— the Future-perfect ? 

How many tenses has the Potential mood ? — the Subjunctive ? — 
the Imperative ? — the Infinitive ? — the Participles 'i In what different 
ways is the Present tdhse used ? — the Present-perfect ? — the Past ? 



LESSON XXI. 
Of Number and Person. 

[Review the three preceding Lessons, and answer the questions.] 

1. Every tense of the verb, except in the Infini- 
tive mood, has two Numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural ; and each of these has three Persons, except 
in the Imperative, v/hich has only the Second. 



48 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2. The -First jjerson asserts of the person speak- 
ing; its subject is always I in the singular, and we 
in the plural; as, I write; we write. 

3. The Second person asserts of the person spok- 
en to; its subject is always thou in the singular, 
and ye or 'you in the plural; ,s, Thou writest; ye or 
you write. 

4. The Third person asserts of the person or 
thing spoken of; its subject is any noun, or the pro- 
noun Ae, she, it$ or they, used instead of it; as, John 
reads; he walks; they run. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The first, second, and third persons plural, are always like the 
first person singular. 

2. The second person singular of the present indicative active 
ends in st or est ; as, thou lovcst ; thou readest ; — of the past, gene- 
rally in st ; as, thou lovedst. All the other persons in both num- 
bers in this tense are alike. 

3. Verbs that end in s, sh, ch, z, x, or o, form the third person 
singular of the present indicative active, by adding es, or, in the 
grave style, eth ; as, He teaches, or teacheth. All others add s or 
th; as, He loves, or loveth. 

4. Verbs in y with a consonant before it, change y into i before 
the terminations est, es, eth, ed; but not before ing; as, try, 
triest, tries, trieth, tried, trying. . 

5. The infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, sometimes 
expresses that of which a person speaks, and is therefore the sub- 
ject of the verb. When it does so it is always regarded as the 
third person, and a pronoun standing instead of it is in the neuter 
gender; as, To play is pleasant; it promotes health. [Sub-Rule 
II., Lesson XLL, An. and Pr. Gr. Less. LXVI. S. Rule 1.] 

QUESTIONS. 
How many numbers has each tense ? What mood has no dis- 
tinction of number or person ? How many persons are in each 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

number? What mood has only the second person ? Of whom does 
the first person assert ? What is its subject in the singular ? — in 
the plural ? Of whom does the second person assert I What is 
its subject in the singular?— in the plural? Of whom or what 
does the third person assert ? What is its subject? What parts 
in each tense are alike? How is the second person singular form- 
ed in the present indicative ? — in the past tense? When is the 
third person singular* of the present indicative formed by adding 
es y or eth ? — When by adding s, or th ? How is it formed when 
the verb ends in y after a consonant? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the second person singular of the following verbs, and how it is formed. 

2. Tell the third person, and how it is formed. 

3. Prefix thou to each verb, when put in the second person singular; as, "thou 
' tellest," &c; and he to each, when put in the third; as, "he tells." 

Tell, speak, sleep, walk, read, learn, smell, see, hear, 
taste, touch, handle, write, pay, eat, drink, warm, teach, 
go, do, fill, play, stand, sell, buy, study, copy. 

4. In the following words, tell which are in the first person, and why;— in the 
second, and why; — in the third, and why. 

5. Prefix to each verb, in the following list, the pronoun of the same person and 
number as the verb; as, /love, thou lovest, &c. 

Love, lovest, loves, runs, runnest, sleep, teach, preach- 
es, teachest, writes, write, eats, goes, goest, go, tell, 
teaches, speaks, read, readest, sews, pay, look, walks, 
jump, hop, skip, laughs, sing, cry, criest, study, studies. 



LESSON XXII. 
Of the Participles. 

[Review four preceding Lessons , and answer promptly and correctly all the 
questions.] 

A Participle is a word which, as a verb, expresses 
an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies a noun 
or substantive 3 as, There is a boy amusing himself; 

5 



50 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Devoted to study he soon became learned ; Having 
finished our task, we may play. 

Verbs have three participles ; the Present, the Past, 
and the Perfect; as. Loving, loved) having loved: — 
Being loved, loved, having been loved. 

OBSERVATIONS. # 

1. The Present Participle active ends always in ing, and has an 
active signification ; as, James is building a house. In many- 
verbs, however, it has also a passive signification - } as, The house 
was 6 wi Wing, when the wall fell. 

2. Th« Past Participle has the same form in both voices. In 
the active voice,its signification is active ; as, He has concealed a 
dagger under his cloak : — In the passive voice, its signification is 
passive; as ; He has a dagger concealed under his cloak. 

8. The Perfect participle is always compound, and has an ac- 
tive signification in the active voice, and a passive signification in 
the passive voice. 

4. The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal or participial 
noun, having the nominative and objective cases, but not the pos- 
sessive. In this character, the participle of a transitive verb 
may still retain the government of the verb, or it may be divested 
of it by inserting the preposition of after it, in which case an ar- 
ticle or adjective should always precede it. [See examples Gr. 
Syntax, § 64 ; An. & Pr. Gr. 462.] 

5. Some participles, laying aside the idea of time, and simply 
qualifying a noun, become participial adjectives, and as such ad- 
mit of comparison; as, An amusing — a more amusing — a most 
amusing story. A most devoted friend. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a participle ? How many participles are there ? Has 
the participle in ing ever a passive signification ? Give an ex- 
ample. How is the perfect participle used? Describe the use of 
the present participle as a verbal noun. How do participles be- 
come adjectives ? What are such adjectives usually called? Do 
they admit of comparison? 

[Before proceeding to the next Lesson review thoroughly from the beginning in 
two or three recitations. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

LESSON XXIII. 
Of the Conjugation of Verbs. 

[The pupil should be thoroughly drilled in this lesson, till he is able to tell 
every part at once and correctly — and to give promptly any part of the verb 
that may be required.] 

1. The conjugation of a verb, is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several moods, 
tenses, numbers, and persons. 

2. In the active voice, most verbs have two forms ; 
the Common ; as, I read, and the Progressive ; as, 
I am reading : See Lesson XXVII., Note. 

Besides these, in the present and the past indicative active, there 
is a third form called the Emphatic ; as, I do read, I did read. The 
other tenses, and also the progressive and the passive form, are ren- 
dered emphatic by placing a peculiar stress of voice on the first 
auxiliary ; as, I have read — I am reading — it is read. 

3. In parsing, a verb is conjugated by giving its 
principal parts, as follows : — 

Present Past Past Part 

Active. Love, Loved, Loved. 

Passive. Am loved, Was loved, Been loved. 

4. The regular verb, to love, in the common form, is 
inflected through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 

ACTIVE YOICE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, love. Past, loved. Past participle ; loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE.* 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thoulovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love. 

* present tense. ( Emphatic form) 
1. I do love 1. We do love. 

•2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 

3. He does or doth love 3. They do love. 



52 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have. 

1. I have loved. 1. "We have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 

3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved 

PAST TENSE.* 

1. I loved. 1. We loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 2. Tou loved. 

3. He loved. . 3. They loved. 

PAST- PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign, had. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Tou had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, toiW.— Inflect with each. 

1. 1 shall love. 1. We shall love. 

2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 

3. He shall love. 3. They shall love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have.-— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 

3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have loved. 



*past tense. {Emphatic form.) 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. Thev did love. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 53 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love. 1. We may love. 

2. r fhou~mayst love. 2. Yoifmay love. 

3. He may love. 3. They may love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have,* must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT) . 
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. • They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

present tense {Subjunctive form) .f 
i.Ifl love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

* Can have is not used in affirmative sentences- 

t The Present subjunctive is here given in two forms : 1st in the subjunctive 
or elliptical form, used when both contingency and futurity are implied; and 2d, 
the indicative form, used when contingency only, and not futurity is implied. In 
parsing, the latter should be called the "indicative used subjunctively," being 
the indicative mood in form, and rendered subjunctive only by the conjunction 
prefixed. This is true also of the other tenses in this mood. 

The emphatic forms of the present are, If I do love, if thou do love, if he dc 
love, etc. ; of the past, If I did love, if thou didst love, etc. as in the indicative 



54 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

present tense (Indicative form) . 

1. If I love. 1. J/ we love. 

2. 7/ thou lovest. 2. J/* you love. 

3. If he loves (or loveth). 3. If they love. 

present-perfect tense (perfect). 

1. If I have loved. 1. Jf we have loved. 

2. If thou hast loved. 2. //" you have loved. 

3. If he has or hath loved. 3. // they have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I/I loved. 1. //" we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 2. if you loved. 

3. If he loved. 3. If they loved. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 

l.Ifl had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. i/* you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. If I shall or will love. 1. If we shall or will love. 

2. 1/ thou shalt or wilt love. 2. // you shall or will love 

3. If he shall or will love. 3. If they shall or will love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 

Uf I shall or will have loved. l.If we shall or will have loved. 
2.1f thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2.1/ you shall or will have loved, 
Z.If he shall or will have loved. 3.1/ they shall or will have loved 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

Common form. . 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you 
Emphatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present, To love. Perfect, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

present, Loving. Past, Loved. perfect, Having loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

Paksing. — A verb is parsed by stating its kind, 
(i. e. whether transitive or intransitive,) its form, 
(whether regular or irregular,) conjugating it, and 
telling in what tense, mood, voice, number, and per- 
son, it is found; also its subject; thus, 

" He loves." Loves is a verb, transitive, regular,- love, loved, 
loved; found in the present, indicative, active^ third person, sin- 
gular; and affirms of its subject, he. 

Jf. B. It is important in parsing to state every thing belonging 
to a word in as few words as possible, and always in the same 
order. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the conjugation of a verb? How is a verb conjugated? 
Conjugate the verb love in the active voice. Say the indicative 
present — past — future — the present-perfect — the past-perfect — 
future-perfect. Say the first person singular, in each tense — the 
second — the third — the first person plural — the second — the third. 
Say the emphatic form, in the present — in the past. "What are 
the signs (or auxiliaries) of the present-perfect? — the past-perfect? 
— the future? — the future -per feet? — the subjunctive present? — 
present-perfect? — past? — past-perfect? &c. What is the sign of 
the infinitive? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Go over the following Exercise, and tell the tense, mood, and voice of each 

verb ; thus, " He loves," present, indicative, active. 

2. Go over it again, and tell the person and number; thus, loves, third person, 

singular. 

3. Go over it again, and join these together, and so tell the tense, mood, voice, 

number, and person; and always in this order ; as, loves, present, indicative, 
active, third person, singular. 

In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, love thou, imperative, active, sec- 
ond person, singular. 

Tn the infinitive, omit the person aud number, and say thus, To love; present, 
infinitive, active. 

In the participle, name only the tense and voice ; thus, loving; present participle, 
active. 
N. B. The pronoun is no part of the verb, but helps to shew its person and 

number; and the auxiliaries (or signs) are not taken separately, but always with 



56 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

the verb; so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the past-perfect 
potential, are parsed together as one word ; thus, have loved, the present-perfect 
indicative, active, &c. 

N. B. This Exercise should be repeated till the pupil can do it correctly, rapidly, 
and easily, and without missing, either in the number or order of the things to 
be stated. 

He loves, they love, I have loved, you will love, thou 
teachest, they will learn, he has written, I had given, 
James will go, John may come, he might read, they 
would have studied, children play, boys studied, they 
did study. Write thou, come ye. To love, to sing, to 
have played, reading, sleeping, running, loved, learned, 
having loved, having gone, turds fly, horses galloped, 
the fire burns, the sun did shine, the moon has changed. 

N. B. Pupils may be required to make exercises of this kind for themselves. 

EXERCISE II. 

Before beginning this Exercise, let the pupil go back and review thoroughly Les- 
son XVI. and the exercises on it; then 

1. Tell which words are verbs, and why ; and whether transitive or intransitive, 

and why. 

2. Tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number, as in the preceding Exercise. 

3. Go over it again, and parse each verb by putting all these together; thus, loves, 

is a verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, active, third person, singular. 

He loves us. I will love him. Good hoys will study 
their lessons. Children love play. The dog killed my 
rabbit. James has written a letter. Cows eat hay. A 
fire warms the room. Bring some wood. I have studied 
grammar. Girls may write letters. Your sister can 
sing. He would like to hear a song. Give that book 
to me. I will give this book to you. Lend me your 
pen. Children should obey their parents ; they should 
love God. Eemember the Sabbath day, to keep it. All 
men must die. Time waits for no man. Do good to 
all men. John will mend my pen ; I will thank him. 
You would oblige me by assisting me to learn this les- 
son. Tell Henry to shut the door. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

EXERCISE III. 
1. The Nominative Case. 
K. B. A verb in the active voice tells what some person or thing 
does. That person or thing then is its subject, and is in the nom- 
inative case,- thus, in the first sentence of the preceding Exercise, 
the word "loves," tells what "he" does; he, therefore, is its sub 
ject, and is in the nominative case. 

Point out the verb in each sentence of the preceding Exercise ; tell what word 
is its subject, and why? What case is the subject in? 

9 

2. The Objective Case. 
A transitive verb in the active voice tells what its subject does 
to some other person or thing. That person or thing is the object 
of the verb, and is ia the objective case. Thus, in the above sen- 
tence, " He loves us," loves is a transitive verb, and tells what 
its subject, he, does to us. Us, then, is its object, and is in the 
objective case. 
The nominative, or subject, is usually before the verb; the ob- 
' jective is usually after it. 

Point out the transitive verbs in the preceding Exercise. Tell what word Is the 
object in each sentence, and what case it is in. 

EXERCISE IV. 
Parsing. 
Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order ; — 
the nouns as directed, Lesson VIII, p. 1 9 ; — the articles as directed, 
Lesson IX, p. 21 ; — the adjectives as directed, Lesson XI, p. 25 ;— 
the pronouns as directed, Lesson XII, p. 28 ; and the verbs as di- 
rected in thi3 Lesson, p. 55. 



lesson xxiy. 

Negative Form of the Verb. 

The verb is made to deny by placing the word not after the sun 
pie form; as, " Thoulovest not -," and between the auxiliary and 
the verb in the compound form; as, "I do not love." When two 
auxiliaries are used, not is placed between them; as, I would not 
have loved. 



58 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first, as, 
Not to Jove; not loving. 

The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the 
present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more 
common. The following synopsis will shew the manner of using 
the negative. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c. 
Pres. Perf. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c. ► 
Past. 1. I did not love. 2. Thou didst not love, &c. 

Past Perf. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &c. 
Future, 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c. 
Fut. Per. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shaft not have 
loved. loved, &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present. 1. lean not love. 2. Thou canst not love, &c. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I may not have 2. Thou mayst not have 

loved. loved, &c. 

Past. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst not love, &c. 

Past. Perf. 1. I might not have 2. Thou mightst not have 
loved. loved, &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 1. If I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, &c. 
The other tenses the same as in the indicative. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Sing. 2. Love not, or do not Plur. 2. Love not, or do not 
* thou love. ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. Not to love. Perf. Not to have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Not loving. Past .Not loved. 

Perf. Not having loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

LESSON XXV. 

Interrogative Form of the Verb. 

The verb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative 
or subject after the simple form j as, Lovest thou ? and between 
the auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; as, Do I love? 
"When there are two auxiliaries the nominative is placed between 
them : as, Shall I have loved ? 

The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, cannot 
have the interrogative form. 

The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. 
The following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the 
interrogative form. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 1. Do I love ? 2. Dost thou love ? &c. 

Pres. Pert. 1. Have I loved ? 2. Hast thou loved ? &c. 
Past. 1. Did I love? 2. Didst thou love ? &c. 

Past Perf. 1. Had I loved ? 2. Hadst thou loved ? &c. 
Future. 1. Shall I love ? 2. "Wilt thou love ? 
Fut. Per. 1. Shall I have loved? 2. Wilt thou have loved? &c. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love ? &c. 

Pres.P^rf 1. May I have loved? 2. Canst thou have loved ? &c. 
Past. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love ? &c. 

Past Perf. I. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have 

loved? loved ? &c. 

Obs. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the 
negative either before or after the nominative; as, Do I not love* 
}r. Do not I love? 

QUESTIONS. 
How is a verb made negative ? Where is the negative placed 
n the simple form? Where, in the compound form? Where. 
\?nen there are two auxiliaries ? Where, in the infinitive and par- 
ticiples ? Say the indicative present in the negative form through- 
out; — the other tenses. 



60 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

How is the verb made interrogative ? Where is the nominative 
placed in the simple form ? "Where, in the compound form ? Where, 
when there are two auxiliaries ? What parts of the verb cannot 
be used interrogatively ? Say the indicative present throughout, 
interrogatively. Say the other tenses. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Put the verb, in the following sentences, into the negative form. 

2. Put the verb, in the folio wing sentences, into the interrogative form. 

3. Distinguish the different parts of speech, and parse them, as in the preceding 
Exercise, IV. 

I love you. You loved me. James studies gram- 
mar. Your father has come. He will go soon. The 
ship foundered at sea. John would eat apples. Apples 
will grow on this tree. The horse Avill run a race. The 
fox had catched the goose. Babbits eat clover. Study 
overcomes most difficulties. Labor promotes health. 
Wealth makes the man. Poverty scatters friends. The 
ships sail. The sun has set. The moon rose. The 
stars will shine. 

N. B. Let the pupils make similar exercises for themselves, and parse them. 



LESSON XXVI. 
The Verb TO BE. 

[The pupil should be chilled thoroughly in this Lesson, as in Lesson XXIII. ] 

The intransitive irregular verb To be, is inflected 
through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present } am. Past^was, Past participle, been. 

INDICATIVE MCOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

_ Singular. Plural. 

1 lam. 1. We are. 

2 Thou art. . 2. You are. 
3. He is. 3. They are. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have, 

1. I have been. 1. "We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. Yon have been. 

3. He has been. ' 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was. 1. We were 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT) . 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been. 3. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be. 1. "We shall be. 

2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be. 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 

3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou maystbe. 2. You may be. 
3 He may be, 3. They may be. 



62 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have, or must have.— Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been. 1. "We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

• 

Signs, mighty could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE~ (PLUPERFECT). 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been. 1. "We might have been. 

2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

present tense (Subjunctive form) . 
Singular . Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be.', 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

past tense (Subjunctive form) .* 

1. If I were. , 1. If we were. 

2. If thou were or wert 2. If you were. 

3. If he were. 3. If they were. 



*The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative with a con- 
junction prefixed; thus, If I am, If I have been, If I was, If I had been, If I 
shall or will be, If I shall have been. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



63 



Singular, 
2. Be, or be thou. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Plural. 
2. Be, or be ye or you. 



INFINITIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. 

To be. To have been 



PARTICIPLES. 
present, Being. past, Been. perfect, Having been. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Let the pupil tell the tense, mood, person, and number of the following words- 
parts of the verb to be ; thus, "Am," present, indicative, first person singular. 

2. Let him parse the same words; thus, "Am," is a verb, intransitive, irregu- 
lar ; am, was, been; in the present, &c. 

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you 
have been, she has been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they 
shall be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been 
they will have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, rnayst be, canst be, she may be, you may 
be, he must be, they should be, mightst be, he would 
be, it could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have 
been, wast. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may hav3 
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 
have been ; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we 
were, I be. 

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be 
ye, been, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 



64 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

3 In the following sentences, parse the words in order ; thus, " Snow," is a 
noun, neuter, the nominative singular, because the subject of is: " Is," is a verb, 
intransitive, irregular ; am, was, been; in the present, indicative, third person, sin" 
gular: "white" is an adjective, qualifies snoia ; compared, white, whiter, whitest. 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been 
younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we 
are old; you will be wise; it will be time; if they be 
thine; be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich; 
they should be virtuous ; thou mightst be wiser; they 
must have been excellent scholars ; they might have 
been powerful. 



LESSON XXVII. 

Progressive Form of the Active Voice. 
The Progressive form of the verb is inflected by 
prefixing the verb to he, through all its moods and 
tenses, to the present participle; thus, 

Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, <fec. 

Pres. Perf. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, &c. 
Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, <fcc. 

Past Perf. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing, (fee. 
Future. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, <fcc. 

Fut. Perf. 1. I shall or will 2. Thou shalt or wilt have 

have been writing. been writing, (fee. 

In this manner go through the other moods and tenses. 

Note. Verbs which, in the common form imply continuance, do 
not usually admit the progressive form ; thus, " I am loving" (if 
proper), would mean nothing more than, " I love" 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the following verbs from tfie simple into the progressive form: 

He writes, they read, thou teachest, we have learned, 
he had written, they go, y?u will build, I ran, John has 
done it, we taught, he stands, he stood, they will stand, 
they may read, we can se^ you should study, we might 
have read. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 6-5 

2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form : 

We are writing, they were singing, they have been 
riding, we might be walking, I may have been sleeping, 
they are coming, thou art teaching, they have been eat- 
ing, he has been moving, we have been defending, 
they had been running. 

3. Parse the above verbs, in the progressive form; thus, " We are writing;" 
• l are writing," is a verb, transitive, irregular; write, wrote, written; [See Lesson 
XXIX.] in the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form. 



LESSON XXVIII. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Passive voice is inflected by adding the 
past participle to the auxiliary verb to be : through 
all its moods and tenses; thus; 
Pres. Am loved. Past, TFas loved. Past Part., Loved, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Sign, have. 

1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 

2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 

3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 

2. Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 

3. He was loved 3. They were loved. 



66 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PAST-PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT). 
Sign, had. 

1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 

2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 

3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 
Signs, shall, will.— Inflect with each. 

1. I shall be loved. 1. "We shall be loved. 

2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved 

3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. 
Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 

2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 

3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have beenloved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. 

2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. 

3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE (PERFECT). 
Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 

2. Thou mayst have beenloved. 2. You may have been loved. 

3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Signs, might, could, would } should.— Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 

2. Thou might st be loved. 2. You might be loved. 

3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

PAST- PERFECT TENSE (PLUPERFECT) . 
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been loved. 1. "We might have been loved 

2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 

3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
present tense (Subjunctive form) . 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved 
3 If he be loved. 3. If they be loved. 

past tense. (Subjunctive form) .* 

1. If I were loved. 1. //"we were loved. 

2. If thou were or wert loved. 2. If you were loved. 

3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. . Plural. 

1. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. 

Perfect, Having been loved. 



*The indicative form in all the tenses is the same as the indicative with a cca- 
junction prefixed ; thus, If I am loved, If I have been loved, If I was loved, If I 
had been loved, If I shall or will be loved, If I shall have been loved 



08 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

EXERCISE I. 

On the Passive Voice. 

1. TY'il the tense, mood, person, and number of the following words in the pas- 
sive voice ;— change them into the active form. 

2. Go over the exercise again, and parse each word in order; thus, " They," is 
the third personal pronoun, masculine, (or feminine) the nominative plural, the 
subject of are loved: "are loved," is a verb, transitive, in the present, indicative, 
passive, third person, plural, because its subject, " they," is third person, plural 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it 
is loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have 
been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; 
we shall be loved ; thou wilt be loved ; they will be 
loved ; I shall have been loved ; you will have been 
loved. 

He can be loved ; thou mayst be loved ; she must be 
loved; they might be loved; ye would be loved; they 
should be loved ; I • could be loved ; thou mayst have 
been loved ; it may have been loved ; you might have 
been loved ; if I be loved ; if thou wert loved ; though 
we be loved ; though they be loved. Be thou loved ; 
be ye loved; you be loved. To be loved; loved; hav- 
ing been loved ; to have been loved ; being loved. 

3. Change the preceding, from the passive to the active, progressive form. 

EXERCISE II. 

On the Noun, Article, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, promiscuously, 

1. In the following Exercise, tell which words are articles — which are nouns — 
and why ;— which are adjectives — and why;— which are pronouns — and why, — 
which are verbs — and why. 

2. Point out the verbs ; tell whether transitive or intransitive— and why ; — active 
or passive — and why. 

3. Go over again, and point out the nouns, and tell whether proper or common — 
and why ; — singular or plural — and why ;— their gender — and why. 

He has learned his lesson. I loved him because he 
was good. A good man will forgive those who may 
have injured him. Love your enemies; do good to 
them that hate you. Eemember your Creator in the 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 

days of your youth. We are commanded to love our 
neighbor as ourselves. That book was printed in New 
York. The winter has been cold, but the ground was 
covered with snow. Columbus discovered America. 
America was discovered by Columbus. I have been 
studying grammar. It is never too late to learn that 
which is good and useful. Peter Parley has written 
some pleasing books. Good boys love reading. Study 
to understand what you read. 

4. Go over the preceding Exercise, and parse each word in order, as directed in 
preceding Exercises. 

N. B. It will now be important to review thoroughly and re- 
peatedly from Lesson XXIII., particularly Lessons XXIII., 
XXVI., and XXVIII., with the Exercises under them. This will 
require several recitations. And while that is going on, the pupil 
may also go forward with Lesson XXIX., conjugating from 
memory the irregular verbs, in such portions daily as the teacher 
may direct. 



LESSON XXIX 

Of Irregular Verbs. 
11 An Irregular verb is one that does not lorni 
both its past tense, and past participle by adding ed 
to the present ; as, Jim, was, been. 



Present. 




Past. 


Past Part. 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am 




was 


been 


Arise 




arose 


arisen 


Awake 




awoke r* 


awaked 


Bake 




baked 


baken r 


Bear, to 


bring forth, 


, bare or bore 


born 



' Those verbs which are conjugated regularly as well as irregularly are mark, 
ed with an r. 



70 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



Present. 




Past. 


Past Participle. 


Bear, to 


carry 


bore or bare 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beaten or beat 


Begin 




began 


begun 


Bend 




bent r 


bent r 


Bereave 




bereft 


bereft r 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bid 




bade, bid 


bidden 


Bind un- 




bound 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 




bred 


bred 


Bring 




brought 


brought 


Build re- 




built, r 


built, r 


Burst 




burst 


burst 


Buy 




bought 


bought 


Cast 




cast 


cast 


Catch 




caught r 


caught r 


Chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 




chose 


chosen 


Cleave, 


to adhere 


clave r 


cleaved 


Cleave, i 


to split 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


Cling 




clung 


clung 


Clothe 




clothed 


clad r 


Come be> 




came 


come 


Cost 




cost 


cost 


Crow 




crewR 


crowed 


Creep 




crept 


crept 


Cut 




cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to 


challenge is r dared 


dared 


Deal 




dealt r 


dealt r 


Dig 




dug R 


dug R 


Do mis- 


un- 


did 


done 


Draw 




drew 


drawn 


Drive 




drove 


driven 


Drink 




drank 


drunk 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



71 



Present. 
Dwell 
Eat 

Fall be- 
Feed 
Feel 
Fight 
Find 
Flee 
Fling 
Fly 

Forbear 
Forget 
Forsake 
Freeze 
Get be- for- 
Gild 

Gird be- en- 
Give for- mis- 
Go 

Grave en- r 
Grind 
Grow 
Have 
Hang 
Hear 
Heave 
Hew 
Hide 
Hit 

Hold be- with- 
Hurt 
Keep 
Knit 
Know 
Lade 



Past. 

dwelt r 

ate 

fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flew 

forbore 

forgot 

forsook 

froze 

gat or got 

giltR 

girt r 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew 

had 

hung 

heard 

hove r 

hewed 

hid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 

knit r 

knew 

laded 



Past Participle. 

dwelt r 

eaten 

fallen 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flown 

forborne 

forgotten, forgot 

forsaken 

frozen 

gotten or got 

giltR 

girt r 

given 

gone 

graven r 

ground 

grown 

had 

hung* 

heard 

hoven r 

hewn r 

hidden, hid 

hit 

held or holden 

hurt 

kept 

knit or knitted 

known 

laden 



• Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular; as, The robber was hanged 
but the gown was hung up. 



72 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



Present. 


Past 


Past Participle. 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain or lien 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden r 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown r 


Pay re- 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit r 


quit 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden* 


Ring 


rang or rung 


rung 


Rise a- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Rot 


rotted ' 


rotten r 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn r 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set be- 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape mis- 


shaped 


shapen b 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven r 


Shear 


shore r 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 



Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle 


Shine 


shone r 


shone r 


Show* 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrank or shrunk 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang or sung 


sung 


Sink 


sank or sunk 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat or sittenf 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slang, slung 


slung 


SUnk 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit R 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown r 


Speak be- 


spoke or spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend mis- 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


spilt R 


Spin 


span, spun 


spun 


Spit de- 


spat, spit 


spit or spitten 


Split 


split R 


split R 


Spread be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring • 


sprang or sprung 


sprung 


Stand with- &c. 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stride be- 


strode or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 



Shew, shewed, shewn,— pronounced show, &c. See foot of next page. 
I Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete. 



74 



PJUCTICAL LESSONS IN 



Present. 


Past. 


Past Participle. 


Strew* be- 


strewed 


strewed or 


Strow be- 


strowed 


strow r n, strowed 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen r 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swang or swung 


swung 


Take&e- Sec. 


took 


taken 


Teach mis- re- 


taught 


taught 


Tear un- 


tore or tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust? 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen r 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound 


Work 


wrought b 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wrung b 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



Obs. The preceding list contains nearly all the simple irregular 
verbs in the English language. 



QUESTIONS. 
What is an irregular verb ? Are any verbs both regular and 
irregular ? Give an example. Since there is no list of regular 
verbs, how may we know what verbs are regular? Is "am" 
regular or irregular — and why ? 

• Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and show, as they are pro- 
nounced. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 

EXERCISE I. 
ft. Name the past tense and past participle of the following verbs : Thus 
Take, took, taken. [This is called conjugating the verb.] 

2. Make a short sentence on the slate or blackboard, with each verb, in the 
present tense— in the present-perfect tense— in the past tense— in any tense ; 
thus, We take breakfast early. John took my hat. I have taken his coat. 

Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, 
catch, bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, 
get, give, go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, 
know, lose, pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, 
sit, slay, slide, smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write. 

3. In the sentences made as directed No. 2, tell which verbs are transitive, and 
which are intransitive — and why. Point out the subject in each sentence, (that is, 
the person or thing spoken of,) and call that the nominative. Tell which nouns 
or pronouns are in the nominative — and why ;— in the objective— and why. 

4. In each sentence, put the verb in the emphatic form— in the progressive 
form— in the negative form— in the interrogative form— in the negative interroga- 
tive form. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. In the following Exercise, point out which verbs are regular, and which irregu- 
lar—and why. 

2. Make short sentences with each verb, as in the preceding Exercise, and do 
with each as there directed, in Nos. 2. 3, 4. 

Love, hope, trust, weep, throw, keep, brush, hunt, 
count, reckon, ask, sleep, eat, drink, spin, save, go, 
teach, wipe, am, draw, bruise, water, know, wash, spoil. 

3. Take the sentences containing transitive verbs, and express the same idea by 
the passive form ; thus, suppose the sentence to be, "James loves praise;" passive 
form, " Praise is loved by James." 

4. Parse the sentences so changed. 



LESSON XXX. 

Defective and Impersonal Verbs. 
Defective verbs are those in which some of the 
parts are wanting. They are irregular, and chiefly 
auxiliary. These are, — 



7ti PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Present. Past. Past Part. Present. Past. Past Part. 

Can could Shall should 

May might Will would 

Must Wis wist 

Ought Wit or; 

Quoth quoth - — Wot | 



wot 



2. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the 
existence of some action or state, but refer it to no 
particular subject. They are preceded by the pro- 
noun it, and are always in the third person singular; 
as, it seems; it becomes, &c. 

To this head may be referred such expressions as, It hails, it 
snows ) it rains it thunders, it behooveth, it irketh; and perhaps 
also, methinks, methought, meseems, meseemed, in which, instead 
of it, the first personal pronoun in the objective case, me, is pre- 
fixed to the third person singular of the verb. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a defective verb? Are they regular or irregular? 
What are they ? What tenses do the most of them have ? What 
tense has must ? — ought? Is it proper to say " I had ought to 
read?" Why? What is an impersonal verb? By what are 
they preceded ? In what person and number are they? What 
sort of words are methinks, meseems, &c. ? 



LESSON XXXI. 

Of Adverbs. 

[Review the preceding Lesson.] 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some 
circumstance respecting it; as, Ann speaks distinct- 
ly; she is remarkably diligent, and reads very cor- 
rectly. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to 
their signification. The chief of these are such as denote, 

1. Quality or Manner simply; as, well, ill, bravely, pru- 
dently, softly; with innumerable others, formed from adjectives 
by adding ly, or changing le into ly; thus, tame, tamely; sensi- 
ble, sensibly, &c. 

2. Place; as, here, there, where; hither, thither; hence, &c. 

3. Time; as, now, then, when; soon, often, seldom; ever, Sec. 

4. Direction; as, upward, downward, back ward, forward, See. 

5. Negation; as, nay, no, not, nowise, never. 

6. Affirmation; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes. 

7. Uncertainty; as, perhaps, peradventure, perchance. 

8. Interrogation; as, how, why, when, wherefore. &c. 

9. Comparison; as, more, most; less, least; as, so, thus^&c. 

10. Quantity; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently. 

11. Order; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. 

12. Conjunctive Adverbs; as, when, where, how, while, &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The chief use of adverbs, is to shorten discourse, by ex- 
pressing in one word what would otherwise require two or more; 
as, here, for " in this place ;" nobly, for " in a noble manner," &c. 

2. Some adverbs admit of comparison like adjectives; as, soon, 
sooner, soonest; nobly, more nobly, most nobly. A few are 
compared irregularly; as, well, better, best; badly, or ill, worse, 
worst. 

3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifies 
at, or on-, as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart. 

4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually reck- 
oned adverbs; the corresponding as and so are adverbs also; thus. 
It is as high as Heaven. 

5. Circumstances of time, place, manner, &c, are often ex- 
pressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase; 
as, in short, in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not 
at all, by no means, in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to 
and fro, &c. which, taken together, may be parsed as adverbs, or 
by supplying the ellipsis; thus, in a short space; in a general 
way, &c. 



78 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Parsing. — An adverb is parsed by stating its class, 
and the word which it modifies ; thus, " Ann speaks 
distinctly. ,7 Distinctly is an adverb of manner, and 
modifies " speaks." 

QUESTIONS. 
What is an adverb ? In the sentence, " Ann speaks distinctly," 
which is the adverb? — why? Which is the adverb in the other 
examples ? — and why ? Into how many classes are adverbs com- 
monly divided? Name the first three — the second three — the 
next three — the last. How are adjectives changed into adverbs ? 
What is the chief use of adverbs ? Are any adverbs compared 
like adjectives ? Give an example. Are any compared irregu- 
larly ? Give an example. What is an adverbial phrase ? Give 
examples. How are such phrases to be parsed? How are ad- 
verbs parsed ? 

EXERCISE I. 

1. In the following list of adverbs, point out the class to which each belongs 

2. Compare those that admit of comparison. 

3. Make a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain one or more 
of the adverbs in the list; and parse the sentences so made. 

Here, there, softly, boldly, wisely, seldom, upward, 
once, twice, hitherto, yesterday, how, more, little, sec- 
ondly, enough, perhaps, yes, no, truly, not, already, 
hence, whence, better, sufficiently, wisely, somewhere. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. In the following sentences, tell what words are articles— what words are 
nouns, and why — adjectives, and why — pronouns, and why — verbs, and why — 
whether transitive or intransitive, and why — regular or irregular, and why. 

2. Which words are adverbs ? — and why? What words do they modify 1 Parse. 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here now. She went 
away yesterday. They came to-day. They will per- 
haps buy some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter 
She sung sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. 
Mary rose up hastily. They that have enough may 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



79 



soundly sleep. Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw 
him long ago. He is a very good man. Sooner or later 
all must die. You read too little. They talk too much. 



LESSON XXXII. 

Of Prepositions. 
A Preposition is a word which shows the relation 
between a noun or pronoun following it, and some 
other word in the sentence ; as, 

11 Before honoris humility." u They speak concerning virtue. " 
In these sentences, the preposition, " before" points out the 
relation between " honor" and " humility;" and "concerning" 
points out the relation between " virtue" and " speak." 

The principal words of this class are contained in the following — 
LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



About 


Below 


From 


Through 


Above 


Beneath 


In 


Throughout 


Across 


Beside 


Into 


Till 


After 


Besides 


Notwithstand-To 


Against 


Between 


ing 


Touching 


Along 


Betwixt j 


Of 


Toward 


Amid ) 
Amidst ) 


Beyond 


Off 


Towards 


But 


On 


Under 


Among j 
Amongst J 


By 


Over 


Underneath 


Concerning 


Past 


Unto 


Around 


Down 


Regarding 


Up 


At 


During 


Respecting 


Upon 


Athwart 


Except 


Round 


With 


Before 


Excepting 


Save 


Within 


Behind 


For 


Since 


Without 



80 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Every preposition requires the noun or pronoun after it to 
be in the objective case. When any word in the preceding list 
does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb; as, He 
rides about. 

2. But, in such phrases as, cast up, holdout, fall on, the words 
up, out, on, may be considered as a part of the verb, rathei 
than as prepositions or adverbs. 

Parsing. — The preposition is parsed by stating 

the words between which it shews the relation; thus, 

if Before honor is humility." "Before" is a preposition, and 
shews the relation between u honor," and " humility." 

QUESTIONS. 
What is a preposition? In what case is the noun or pronoun 
after a preposition? When an objective does not follow a prepo- 
sition, what part of speech is it to be considered ? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the prepositions in the following exercises. 

2. Point out the noun or pronoun after the preposition, and the word to which It 
is related; thus, "I went from Albany to New- York." The preposition from, 
stands before Albany, and shews its relation to the verb, "went." So also, to 
stands before New- York, and shews its relation to " went." 

I went from London to Bath. The king walked about 
the garden with his son. They dined without me. I 
fell off a ship into the river near the bridge. This box 
of wafers is for you. Charles put it upon the table 
against the inkstand. Turn down the lane through the 
gate. I shall go up the road after him. Eun to that 
tree near the house. It stands between the trees. Put 
it on the table at the side of the house. I found the 
knife among the ashes under the grate. Sit by me. 
John is at Utica. They all went except me. 

3* Parse the words in preceding Exercises. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 

LESSON XXXIII. 

Of Interjections. 
An Interjection is a word used in exclamations, to 
express some emotion of the mind;" as, Oh! what a 
sight is here ! Well done! 

A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. 
Adieu! ah! alas! alack! away! aha! begone! 
hark! ho! ha! he! hail! halloo! hum! hush! huz- 
za! hist! hey-dey! lo! O! Oh! O strange! O brave! 
pshaw! see! well-a-day! &c. 

OBSERVATIONS ON INTERJECTIONS. 

1. The Interjection is thrown in among the other words in a 
sentence, but does not affect their construction. 

2. is used to express wishing or exclamation , and should oe 
prefixed only to a noun or a pronoun, in a direct address; as, 
" O virtue ! How amiable thou art!' 7 Oh is used detached from 
the word, with a point of exclamation after it. It implies an 
emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise; as, " Oh! what a sight is 
here!" 

Parsing. — Interjections are parsed by naming them 
as such, stating why, and the emotion expressed. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an Interjection ? Name some of them. Does the in- 
terjection affect the construction of the other words in a sentence? 
How do O and Oh differ in meaning ? How, in the manner of 
writing them? How are interjections parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the Interjections in this Exercise. 

2. Name all the other parts of speech, and parse them. 

Hah ! I am glad to see you. Well-a-day ! I did not 
expect this. Alas ! I am ruined. Indeed ! is that true? 



8 2 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

What ! is it possible ? Lo ! there he is. Hem ! I do 
not think so. O what a benefit education is ! Ah ! you 
are a happy fellow. Hush ! what was that ? Ha, ha, 
ha; how laughable that is! Ho ! come this way. Ah ! 
poor fellow, he is to be pitied. Hurrah ! we have finish- 
ed our lesson. Come ! now for the next. 



LESSON XXXIV. 

Conjunctions. 

A Conjunction is a word which connects words or 
sentences; as, " You and I must study; but he may 
go and play." " Two and two make four." 

Conjunctions are of two kinds; Copulative and 
Disjunctive. 

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Copulative — Also, and, because, both, for, if, 
since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 

2. Disjunctive — Although, as, as well as, but, 
either, except, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, 
or, provided, so, than, though, unless, whether, yet, 
still. 

Obs. The copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be 
taken together ; as, " You and I (i. e. both of us) must go." The 
disjunctive conjunctions connect things that are to be taken sepa- 
rately, or one to the exclusion of the rest ; as, " You or I (i. e. the 
one or the other, but not both) must go." 

Parsing. — Conjunctions are parsed by stating to 
what class they belong, and the words or sentences 
which they join together; thus, "You and I must 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



83 



study." And is a conjunction, copulative, and con- 
nects You and I. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a conjunction? How many kinds of conjunctions are 
there ? What are the copulative ? — the disjunctive ? How do 
these two classes differ? How are conjunctions parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the conjunctions in the following Exercise, the class to which they 
belong, and words which they connect. 

2. Parse all the words in order. 

Henry and Charles read their lessons. I or he will 
be there. I will be with you unless you* call. I slept 
well though the dog barked. Read that you may learn. 
John says that he will do it. As he writes, so do I read ; 
for I am fond of reading. Neither the boys nor the 
girls are asleep. I would call if I could, but I cannot. 
Take care lest you fall. Two and two make four. He 
is better than I thought he was, though he behaved ill. 
Since that has happened I must go. Do to others as 
you would that they should do to you. 



LESSON XXXV. 
How to distinguish the Parts of Speech. 

1. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and in- 
terjections, are so few in number that they may be easily com- 
mitted to memory. 

2. The other four, namely, the noun, adjective, verb, and ad- 
verb, wil be best distinguished by comparing their meaning and 
use with the definitions of these parts of speech in their place; 
thus, 

1st. Every word that is the name of a person or thing, is a Noun 
because " A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing." 



■ 



/ 

84 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



2d. A word that qualifies a noun by describing, limiting, or distin- 
guishing it, is an adjective; because, " An adjective is a word 
used to qualify a substantive." 

3d. A word that expresses what a person or thing does, or is, or 
what is done to a person or thing, is a verb ; because, " a verb is 
a word used to express the act, being, or state of its subject." 

4 th. A word that modifies another by expressing a circumstance 
of time, place, manner, &c. is an Adverb; because " An ad- 
verb &c." [See definition. Lesson XXXI.] 
3. The following technical method, though neither very accu- 
rate- nor certain, may assist the young pupil in distinguishing 

these four parts of speech; but the preceding should always be 

preferred. 

1st. A word that makes sense after an article, or the phrase " 1 
speak of," is a Noun; as, A man; I speak of money. 

2d. A word that makes sense before the word thing, is common- 
ly an Adjective; as, A good thing; an old thing. 

3d. A Verb makes sense with I, thou, he, or to before itj as, I 
write; he writes; to teach. 

4th. The answer to the question, Hovj ? When ? Where ? is gene- 
rally an Adverb; as, How do you do? Very well. When did 
you arrive? Yesterday. Where is your book ? It is here. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1. Many words are sometimes to be regarded as one part of 
speech, and sometimes as another, according to their meaning 
and use in the place where they are used; thus, 

s A Demonstrative Pronoun; as " Give me that book." 
That, < Relative Pronoun; as, " It is the same that I bought " 

( Conjunction; as, " I am glad that you are come." 

r Adverb; as, " It is much better to give than to receive " 
Much, < Adjective; as, " In much wisdom is much grief." 

' Noun; as, " Where much is given, much is required." 

r Conjunction; as, "Since we must part." 
Since, < Preposition; " Since that time." 

I Adverb; as, " Your friend has gone long since.' 7 

/ Conjunction; as, "Poor but honest." 
But, < Preposition; as, " All out one." 

' Adverb; as, " He has £w/ just enough." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

2. When the same word is sometimes a preposition and some- 
times a conjunction, let it be remembered that the preposition is 
followed by an objective case; the conjunction is not. 

QUESTIONS. 

How ma) ^e most readily distinguish articles, pronouns, prepo- 
sitions, conj auctions, and interjections? How do you distinguish 
the noun from other parts of speech? — the adjective? — the verb? 
—the adverb ? 



LESSON XXXVI. 

Parsing. 
Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements, or parts of speech. Worcls are parsed two 
ways; Etymologically, and Syntactically. 

1. In etymological parsing, the pupil is required to state the 
part of speech to which a word belongs, and to describe it by its 
accidents. 

2. In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing 
the word etymologically, to state its relation to other words in 
the sentence, and the rules by which these relations are governed. 

N. B. Before proceeding to Syntax, the pupil should be expert 
in etymological parsing. This he can hardly fail to be, if he has 
attended, in the manner directed, to the exercises already given. 
The reading lessons in the spelling book, or sentences from any 
plain writer, may now be analyzed and parsed as already direct- 
ed. To assist farther in this, observe the following 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 
In order to parse a sentence, it is necessary to un- 
derstand it. The sentence being understood, in pars- 
ing it, let the following general principles be remem- 
bered, viz. 

1. Every Article, Adjective, Adjective pronoun, 
or Participle, belongs to some noun or pronoun, ex- 
pressed or understood. 

8 



86 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2. The subject of a verb, i. e. the person or thing 
spoken of, is usually in the nominative, and is said 
to be the " nominative to the verb." 

3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, 
when spoken of, is the subject of a verb, expressed 
or understood, i. e., it is that of which the verb af- 
firms. To this there are a few exceptions. 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or sub- 
junctive mood, has a nominative or subject express- 
ed or understood, i. e., it has something of which it 
affirms. 

5. Every transitive verb in the active voice, and 
every preposition, governs a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case ; and every objective case is governed 
by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by a pre- 
position. 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed 
by a verb or adjective ; sometimes by a noun; and 
sometimes it stands after the conjunction, than or as. 

QUESTIONS. 
What is parsing ? How many kinds of parsing are there ? 
What is done in etymological parsing ? — -in syntactical parsing ? 
What is necessary before parsing a sentence? To what does 
every article, adjective, &c. belong? In what case is the subject 
of a verb ? When a noun or pronoun in the nominative case is 
spoken of, what must it have? What must every verb in the in- 
dicative, potential, or subjunctive mood, have? What case does 
every transitive verb in the active voice, and every preposition, 
have after it? By what is the objective case always governed? 
When a verb is in the infinitive mood, by what is it governed? 

I 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 

For the answer to the following questions, go back 
to the pages indicated. 

How is a noun parsed ? p. 19. — an article ? p. 20. — an adjec- 
tive ? p. 25.— a pronoun? pp. 28, 31, 34.— a verb? p. 55.— an ad- 
verb? p. 78. — a preposition? p. 80. — a conjunction? p. 81. — an 
interjection? p. 83. Parse all these as directed in the places re- 
ferred to, and as described in the next Lesson. 



LESSON XXXVII. 

Model of Etymological Parsing. 

u Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be 
yet wiser." 

" Give " is a verb, transitive, irregular,- give, gave, given; in the 
imperative, active, second person, singular. Its subject 
is thou understood, and its object, instruction. 

" Instruction" is a noun, neuter, in the objective singular; the 
object of give* 
" To" is a preposition ; it points out the relation between its ob- 
ject man, and give. 

" A" is an article, indefinite, belongs to man. 

"Wise" is an adjective; compared, wise, wiser, wisest; and ex- 
presses a quality of man. 

i: Man" is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular; pi. men. 

" And" is a conjunction, and connects the clauses. 

" He" is a third personal pronoun, masculine, in the nominative 
singular; the subject of will be, and stands for man. 

"Will be" is a verb, intransitive, irregular; am, was, been; in 
the future, indicative, active, third person, singular, and 
affirms of its subject, he. 

" Yet" is an adverb, modifying wiser. 

"Wiser" is an adjective, comparative degree; wise, wiser, 
wisest; and belongs to man, or is predicated of he. 

' The person and class of the noun are omitted for reasons stated p.^16. 



89 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IiM 



As a further exercise, the pupil may be requi .J 
to give a reason for every thing affirmed in the pre- 
ceding model.; thus. 

Why do you say that give is a verb ? Why transitive ? Why 
irregular? Why the imperative? Why the second person? Why 
singular ? 

Why do you say that instruction is a noun? Why neuter? 
Why singular? Why the objective? &c. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

Exercises in Parsing. 
After the same manner as in the preceding Lesson, 
parse and practice on the following exercises. 

MAXIMS FOR YOUNG AND OLD. 

I. Early Piety. — Remember now thy Creator in the 
days of thy youth, while the evil days come not, nor 
the years draw nigh, when thou shalt say, I have no 
pleasure in them. 

Children, obey your parents: honor thy father and 
mother, is the first commandment with promise. 

A wise son heareth a father's instruction, but ascorn- 
er heareth not rebuke. The eye that mocketh at his 
father, and despiseth to obey his mother, the ravens of 
the valley .shall pluck out, and the young eagles shall 
eat it. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish 
son is the heaviness of his mother. Whoso loveth in- 
struction loveth knowledge, but he that hateth reproof 
is brutish. 

II. Education. — Train up a child in the way he 
should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

Quintilian recommends to all parents the timely edu- 
cation of their children; advising to train them up in 
learning, good manners, and virtuous exercises; since 
we commonly retain those things in age which we en- 
tertained in youth. 

'Tis education forms the common mind ; 
Just as the twig is bent, the tree's inclined. 

An industrious and virtuous education of children is 
a better inheritance for them than a great estate. 

III. Prosperity and Adversity.— If I must make 
choice either of continual prosperity or adversity, 1 
would choose the latter ; for in adversity no good man 
can want comfort, whereas, in prosperity, most men want 
discretion. Adversity overcome, is the greatest glory; 
and willingly undergone, the greatest virtue : sufferings 
are but the trials of gallant spirits. 

IV. Anger. — The continuance of anger is hatred; 
the continuance of hatred becomes malice; that anger 
is not warrantable which has suffered the sun to go down 
upon it. Let all men avoid rash speaking. One un- 
quiet, perverse disposition, distempers the peace and 
unity of a whole family, or society, as one jarring in- 
strument will spoil a whole concert. 

V. Eiches. — Riches beget pride ; pride, impatience ; 
impatience, revenge ; revenge, war ; war, poverty ; pov- 
verty, humility ; humility, patience; patience, peace ; 
and peace, riches. 

The shortest w r ay to be rich, is not by enlarging our 
estates, but, by contracting our desires. A great fortune 
in the hands of a fool, is a great misfortune. The more 
riches a fool has, the greater fool he is. 



90 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

PERSEVERANCE. 
It is astonishing to see how much can be done by 
perseverance. Jessie is not so smart as either of her 
sisters, yet it strikes me. she will grow up the most sens- 
ible woman of the three ; and what do you think is the 
reason ? . Why, because she never says she cannot do 
a thing, but tries, over and over again, till she does it. 
She is not quick, nor is her memory very good, there- 
fore it is a great trouble to her to learn a lesson by heart; 
but yet. she is generally better prepared than the others. 
Though Louisa can learn to repeat a page of history in 
ten minutes, and Clara went twice through the gram- 
mar before Jessie got to the twentieth page, yet these 
quick folks often forget as fast as they learn, and, like 
the hare in the fable, that ran a race with the tortoise, 
they are left behind at last. — Useful Stories. 

WASHINGTON AND HIS MOTHER. 

Young George was about to go to sea as a midship- 
man ; every thing was arranged, the vessel lay opposite 
his father's house, the little boat had come on shore to 
take him off, and his whole heart was bent on going. 
After his trunk had been carried down to the boat, he 
went to bid his mother farewell, and saw the tears burst- 
ing from her eyes. However, he said nothing to her ; 
but he saw that his mother would be distressed if he 
went, and perhaps never be happy again. He just turn- 
ed round to the servant and said, " Go and tell them to 
fetch my trunk back. I will not go away to break my 
mother's heart." His mother was struck with his de- 
cision, and she said to him, " George, God has promised 
to bless the children that honor their parents, and I 
believe he will bless you." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 

PART THIRD.— SYNTAX. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

General Principles of Syntax. 
Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of 
the proper arrangement and connection of words in 
a sentence. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes complete 
sense; as Man is mortal. 

Every simple sentence consists of two parts, the subject and 
the predicate. 

The subject is the person or thing spoken of, and is always the 
nominative to the verb; as, John reads. 

The predicate is the thing affirmed or denied of the subject; 
as John reads. Time is short. 

The following general principles should be care- 
fully observed: 

1. In every sentence, there must be a verb and a 
nominative (or subject) expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or 
participle, must have a substantive expressed or un- 
derstood. 

3. Every nominative has its own verb expressed 
or understood. 

4. Every verb (except in the infinitive and parti- 
ciples) has its own nominative expressed or under- 
stood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by some 
noun denoting the thing possessed. 

6. Every objective case is governed by a transi- 
tive verb in the active voice, or by a preposition. 



92 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an 

adjective, or a substantive. 

Obs. The exceptions to these general principles will appear in 
the Rules of Syntax. 



LESSON XL. 

Parts of Syntax. 

The Rules of Syntax may all be included under 
three heads; Concord, Government, and Position. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has 
with another, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one word has 
in directing the mood, tense, or case of another 
word. 

Position means the place which a word occupies 

in a sentence. 

In the English language, which has but few inflections, the 
meaning of a sentence depends much on the position of the words 
which it contains. 



LESSON XLI.* 

Rule I. A Verb must agree with its nominative 
in number a?id person; as, Thou readest, He reads, 
We read. 

EXPLANATION. — This rule means that a verb must always be in the same 
number and person with its subject or nominative. 

" 133 s * The same system of reviewing recommended in the preceding part, 
should be kept up through the rules of Syntax. Before reciting the new lesson, 
the class should be directed to recite the rules in order from the beginning, always 
giving the number of the rule ; and this exercise should be continued till they can 
immediately recite any rule called for, by its number, and tell the number. of any 
rule they hear read or recited. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

QUESTIONS. 
With what must a verb agree ? In what must they agree ? 
What does that mean? In the above examples, which are the 
verbs? Which the nominatives? Do they agree? — in what? 
Shew that they agree. Is it proper to say " Thou read ? " Why ? 
— " He read?" Why? Should we say "Hove?" or "I loves?" 
Why?— -"We hast loved," or "has loved," or " have loved ? " 
Why?* 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, tell which words are verbs— which the nomina* 
tfves— whether the verb and its nominative agree or not— and if not, make them 
agree by putting the verb in the person and number of its nominative. 

You was there. They was absent. Your brothers 
has been abroad. Has your sisters come home ? Was 
you present ? The letters has come. Fair words costs 
nothing. There is no roses without thorns. 

2. Take the verb to write, and make it agree with I— with thou— with he— with 
they— in. all the tenses of the indicative. Take any other verb, and do the same. 

SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE I. 

Rule I. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative; 
as. He and she are of the same age; not, Him and her. 

Rule II. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence is often 
used as the nominative to a verb; as, To play is pleasant; His 
being at enmity with Ccesar, was the cause of perpetual discord. 

Rule III. A noun singular, used for a plural, is joined to a plu- 
ral verb; as, Ten sail of the line were seen at a distance. 

Note. Nouns plural in form, but singular in signification, may be joined either 
with a singular or plural verb [Lesson VIII. Oes. 7.] 

* |I3=" After the pupil has committed the Rule accurately to memory, and 
studied the explanation and observations, before proceeding to the Exercises, the 
teacher may, by a series of questions, in some such way as this, orally elicit 
thought, and call the attention of pupils to the meaning and use of the Rule. This 
will enable them to proceed with the correction in a more intelligent manner. 
The framing of such questions is now left entirely with the teacher. 

The following exercises are of the simplest kind, and chiefly on the Ride. Any 
thing difficult would not be suitable for that class of pupils for whom this work id 
intended. 



94 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Rule IV. A noun and its pronoun should never be used as a 
nominative to the same verb; as, The king is just; not, the king 
he is just. Except that himself, herself, &c. are joined with a 
noun or pronoun, rendering it emphatic. [Lesson XII. Obs. I.] 

Rule V. When the verb to be stands between a singular and 
plural nominative, it agrees with the one next to it, or the one 
which is more naturally the subject of it; as The wages of sin 
is death. 



LESSON XLIL 

Rule II. A transitive verb in the active voice, 
governs the objective case; as, We love him. He 
loves us. Whom did they send? 

EXPLANATION. — The transitive verb in the active voice, always tells what its 
subject or nominative does to some other person or thing, called its object. The 
rule meanSjthat this object must always be put in the objective case. This rule is 
liable to be violated only when the object is zpronoun, because in all other words 
the nominative and objective cases are alike. 

Nouns arid personal pronouns in the objective case, are usually placed after the 
verb — relative and interrogative pronouns, usually before it. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercises, point out the transitive verb — its subject— its ob- 
ject — put that object in the proper case— tell what that case is, and why. 

He loves I. Did they hurt ye ? We know he and 
they. He and they we know. The friend who I love. 
Take care who you admit. I will not give ye up. He 
who you ignorantly worship, declare I unto you. 

2. Write a number of sentences, each of which shall contain an active transi- 
tive verb ; such as, do, have, touch, hurt, love, &c, followed by a personal pronoun 
in the proper case. Parse them, and give the Rule. 

SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE II. 

I. Intransitive verbs never govern an objective case; thus, 
"Repenting him of his design." Omit him. 

II. Intransitive verbs do not admit of a passive voice; thus, 
u I am perished." should be, u I perish," or," I am perishing. " 

III. An intransitive verb used transitively governs the objtc- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 

tive case, and has a passive voice [Lesson XVIII. 5,] ; as, u I 
run a race." u My race is run." 

IV. Transitive verbs do not admit a preposition after them; 
" thus u I premise ivith this observation." Omit with. 

V. *d noun and its pronoun should not be used as the objective 
after the same verb. 

VI. The infinite mood, or part of a sentence, as well as a noun 
or pronoun, may be the object of a transitive active verb, " as 
Boys love to play." u I wish that they were ivise." 

VII. Verbs signifying to name, choose, appoint, and the 
like, govern two objectives; as, they named him John. 



LESSON XLIII. 

Rule III. Prepositions govern the objective case; 
as 5 To whom much is given, of him much shall be 
required. 

EXPLANATION. — This rale means, that the noun or pronoun after a prepo- 
sition, must be put in the objective case. This rule can be violated only in the 
use of pronouns. 

Obs. 1. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposi- 
tion at some distance after them. But this should generally be 
avoided; thus, " This is he xvhom I gave it to, " — better — "to 
whom I gave it." 

Obs. 2. The preposition is sometimes omitted. It is then said 
to be understood; thus, " Give (to) me that book." Here " me" 
is governed by " to " understood. 

Sub-Rule. — Nouns denoting time, value, weight, or measure, are 
commonly put in the objective case, without a governing word ; as, 
" He was absent six months ;" " It cost a shilling, but it is not worth 
a cent ;" " It weighs a, pound;" "The wall is six feet high, and two 
feet thick." 

This may be called the objective of time, value, &c., as the case 
may be. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the prepositions and the word governed by each. Put that word 
in the proper case, if not in it already. Give the Rule. 



96 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



This belongs to my father and I. Who did you get 
it from ? Who shall we send it to ? Divide it between 
ye, or give it to he and I. This is a small matter be- 
tween you and I. Who did you give it to ? Who do 
you work for ? 

2. In this, way, write a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain 
a preposition (see the list, p. 79,) followed by a personal or relative pronoun in the 
proper case. Parse the sentences, and give the Rule for the case after the prepo- 
sition. 



LESSON XLIV. 
Rule 1 IV. Two or more substantives singular, taken 
in connexion ^require a verb in the plural; as, 

1. Cato and Cicero were learned men. 

2. Honor, justice, religion itself, are derided by the profligate. 

Obs. — Nouns connected by a preposition sometimes have a plu- 
ral verb, but this is improper and should not be imitated -, Thus, 
r< the king, with the lords and commons, constitute the English 
form of government." Omit "with the." 

EXPLANATION.— The plural denotes more than one ; and because two or 
more nouns in the singular denote more than one, they are equivalent to a plu- 
ral ; and hence the verb of which they are the subject, ana words winch stand 
instead of them, or refer to them, must be plural also. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the verb m each of the following sentences. See whether the sub- 
ject consists of one, or more than one person or thing. If of more than one, put 
the verb in the proper number and person. 

One and one makes two. Your sister and brother 
has come. Time and tide waits for no man. Socrates 
and Plato was a Grecian philosopher. Dew and hoar 
frost was abundant in the valley. Diligence and perse- 
verance overcomes all difficulties. 

2. Write a number of sentences similar to the above, having two nouns in the 
singular coupled by and, for the subject of the verb. Parse them, and give the 
Rule for the verb being plural. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9? 

LESSON XLV. 
Rule V. Two or more substantives singular, taken 
separately, or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a 
verb in the singular, as, " John or James or Andrew 
intends to accompany you." 

EXPLANATION.— Nouns are viewed separately, when, though they all stand 
as the nominative to the verb, yet only one, exclusive of all the rest, is the subject 
of discourse, .as in the above example : or, though all are equally the subject of 
discourse, yet they are not so in combination, but individually. In this case the 
verb agrees with the last, and is understood to the rest. Separation is marked by 
the conjunctions or and nor expressed or understood. 

Sub-Rule. — A singular and a plural nominative, connected 
by a disjunctive, require a verb in the plural; as, Neither the 
captain nor the sailors were saved. 

%* The plural nominative should be placed next the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the verb and the several nominatives, tell whether taken in connex- 
ion or separately, and why. Put the verb in the proper number, according to the 
Rule. 

Are James, or John, or Thomas, the oldest? Either 
his gratitude or compassion were roused. Hope or des- 
pair govern him. Charles, or John, or Henry, are at 
home. One or the other have done it. Either Tom or 
Dick have hurt himself. 

2. Write short sentences of which the subject shall be two or more nouns taken 
separately, and the verb in the present or in the present-perfect tense. 



LESSON XLVI. 
Rule VI. 1. When two or more nominatives com- 
bined are of different persons, the verb is plural, and 
prefers the first person to the second, and the second to 
the third} as, " He and 1 are brothers. 5 " 



98 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

2. When nominatives of different persons are disjunc- 
tively connected, the verb in the singular agrees with 
the person next it, or is expressed with each; thus, 
" He or I am to blame;" or " He is to blame, or I am? 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule means that if, of different nominatives to a verb, 
one is in the first person, then the plural verb or a pronoun referring to them, is 
put in the first person ; and if one is in the second person and none in the first, 
then the verb or pronoun is put in the second person. It is however, only in the 
use of the pronouns that there is a liability to err under this rule, because all the 
persons of the verb in the plural number are alike. The second part needs no 
explanation. 

Obs. In the order of arrangement in English, the second per- 
son is usually placed before the third, and the first person is al- 
ways placed last. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, point out which words are the verbs — what 
are the nominatives. Arrange the nominatives in the proper order , put the 
verbs in each, in the proper number and person. 

Thomas and you has divided that apple between you. 
I or James do it ourselves. I and thou art to blame. 
I or thou have done it. I, or thou, or John, is appointed 
to read. I and James has a horse of our own ; have 
not we 1 

2. Write short sentences of which the subject shall be nominatives of different 
persons, properly arranged, and tell what person and number the verb is, and 
why. Tell what pronoun stands for " he and /" — " thou and he " — " he and she " — 
"thou and /." 



LESSON XLVII. 

Rule VII. 1. When a collective noun conveys the 
idea of unity ^ its verb must be singular; as. The 
class was large. 

2. When a collective noun conveys the idea of plu- 
rality , its verb must be plural; as, My people do 
not consider! They have not known me. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 

EXPLANATION — A collective noun conveys unity of idea, when thai which 
is said of it regards the collection as one whole, and not as individuals or divided- 
Tims, in the first example, it was the "class," and not the individuals composing 
it, that " was large." It conveys plurality, when that which is said regards mainly 
the individuals or parts, and not the collection as one whole; as, "My people" 
(that i?, ail of them and every one of them,) "do not consider." In this Rule the 
sense is the best guide. 

Obs. Pronouns referring to collective nouns, must in like man- 
ner be singular or plural, according as the idea of unity or plu- 
rality is expressed. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the collective nouns. Consider from the sense whether they con* 
vey unity or plurality of idea, and put the verb in the singular or plural accordingly. 

The school are dismissed, A church are made up of 
all the members. The assembly were unanimous. 
The assembly was divided. The number of hearers 
were very great. Mankind is united by the bonds of 
friendship. Never was a people more various in its sen- 
timents. The crowd were immense. 

2. Write short sentences in each of which the subject, or nominative to the verb, 
shall be one of the following nouns, viz., multitude, crowd, army, nation, fleets 
people, generation, &c: tell whether the verb is singular or plural, and why. 



LESSON XLVIII. 

Rule VIII. 1. Jin adjective qualifies the substan- 
tive to which it belongs; as 5 A good boy. 

2. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the 
singular; those denoting more than one, qualify nouns 
in the plural; as, This man, these men; that house^ 
those fields. 

EXPLANATION. — This Rule applies to all adjective words, namely, adjec- 
tives, adjective pronouns, and participles. These being indeclinable in English, 
there is danger of error only in the use of such as imply number. 

Obs. 1. Adjectives denoting one, are this, that, one, each, every, 
eiiher, neither; and the ordinal numerals, first, second, third, &c 



JOG PRACTICAL LESSONS tN 

Obs. 2. Adjectives denoting more than one, are these, those, 
many , several; and the cardinal numerals, two } three, four, &c. 

Obs. 3. Some adjectives implying number can be joined with 
either singular or plural nouns, according to the sense ; as, some, 
all, no, &c; thus, Some man; Some men, &c. 

Obs. 4. Exception. When the noun following the numeral is 
used in an adjective sense, (Lesson X., Obs. 1,) it has not the 
plural termination; thus, we say, A four inch plank; a three 
foot wall; a four horse team; a ten acre field, Sec. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, point oat the adjectives and the substantives which 
they qualify. Tell which denote one, and which more than one, and make the 
substantives singular or plural as the adjectives require. 

A well six fathom deep. A pole ten foot long. A 
field twenty rod wide. I have not seen him this ten 
days. Those sort of people are common. These kind 
of things are useless. You will find the remark in the 
second or third pages. Each have their own place and 
they know it. The second and third page were torn. 

3. Write short sentences each of which shall contain an adjective of number 
(See Obs. 1, 2, 3,) and a substantive in the number required by the adjective. 
Thus, Every man had a pole six feet long. 



LESSON XLIX. 

Rule IX. When two persons or things are con- 
trasted^ that refers to the first mentioned, and this to 
the last; as, 

Virtue and vice are as opposite to each other as light and dark- 
ness; that ennobles the mind, this debases it. 

Obs. Former and latter, one and other, are often used instead 
of that and this. Former and latter are alike in both numbers; 
one and other refer to the singular only. In most cases, however, 
the repetition of the nouns is preferable to either of these substi- 
tutes. This Rule needs no illustration. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

LESSON L. 

Rule X. Pronouns agree with the nouns for 

which they stand^ in gender ; 3 number 5 and person; 
as, John is here; he came an hour ago. Every tree 
is known by its fruit. 

EXPLANATION. — This Rule applies only to the personal and possessive pro- 
nouns. These stand instead of nouns of all genders, numbers, and persons; and 
the Rule means that when any of these pronouns is used, it must be of the same 
gender, number, and person, with the noun for which it stands. 

I. A pronoun referring to two or more substantives of differ- 
rent per sons, taken together is plural, and prefers the first per- 
son to the second, and the second to the third; as, John and I do 
our duty. 

II. When a pronoun refers to -two or more substantives of the 
same gender, taken separately, or to one of them exclusively , it 
must be singular; as, <c A clock or a watch is complicated in its 
movements. " 

III. But if either of the substantives be plural, the pronoun 
must be plural also; as, u Neither he nor they trouble themselves. 

IV. A pronoun referring to a collective noun expressing unity , 
should be in the neuter singular; as, " The army is on its march." 
But when it expresses many, as individuals, the pronoun must 
ie plural; as, " The court were divided in their opinions." 

. EXERCISES. 

1. In the following- Exercise,point out the personal and possessive pronouns, 
and the nouns for which they stand. Change the pronoun, if necessary, for one 
of the same gender, number, and person with its noun. 

Give to every man their due. Answer not a fool 
according to her folly. Take handfuls of ashes and 
sprinkle it towards heaven. Rebecca took raiment and 
put them upon Jacob. Thou and he shared it be- 
tween them. Virtue forces her way through obscuri- 
ty, and, sooner or later, is sure to be rewarded. 

2. Write sentences each of which shall contain one of the following nouns, 
and a pronoun standing instead of it : John, Mary, uncle, father, mother, book, 
house, boy. pen, &c; thus, " There is John; tell him to come in. he must be 
tired." 

m 



102 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON LI. 

Rule XI. The relative agrees with its antecedent 
in number and person^ and the verb agrees with it 
accordingly ; as, Thou who speakest. The book 
which was lost. 

EXPLANATION.— The relative both stands instead of the noun or pronoun 
called its antecedent, and connects the idea expressed in its clause with the ante- 
cedent, as a farther limitation or description of it. Consequently the relative ia 
always regarded as of the same person and number as its antecedent ; and, if the 
nominative to a verb, the verb will be of the same number and person also. For 
remarks respecting the antecedent and the use of tcho and which see Lesson XIII. 

SPECIAL RULES UNDER RULE XI. 

Rule I. The relative who is applied to persons; which, to 
animals and things; that, to both persons and things. 

Rule II. The relative, with, its clause, should be placed an 
near as possible to its antecedent, to prevent ambiguity. 

Rule III. When the relative is preceded by two words refer- 
ring to the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it* 
as, Thou art the man who was engaged in that business. 

Obs. The relative that is used instead of who and which — 

1. After the superlative degree, the words same, all, and some- 
times no, some, and any; as " It is the best that can be got." 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things,* as, 
" The man and the horse that we saw yesterday." 

3. After the interrogative who, and sometimes after the per- 
sonal pronouns; as, " Who that knows him will believe it." "I 
that speak in righteousness." 

EXERCISES. 

I. Point out the relative, and the noun or pronoun to which it refers. Tell 
the use of the relative, and its clause in each sentence. Alter the relative, if ne- 
cessary, as required by its antecedent, according to Sub-Rule I. If the relative 
is the nominative, put its verb in the same number and person as the relative or 
the antecedent. Give a reason for each change. 

The friend which I love. The vice which I hate. 
There is the dog who followed us. They who seeks 
wisdom find it. All which beauty, all w r hich wealth 
e'er gave. " I who speak unto you am he." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 

2. Write a few short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the follow- 
ing nouns or pronouns, limited by a relative and its clause ; viz. Man, house, dog, 
tree, field, hat, boot, chair; 1, thou, he, we, you, they ; thus, " There is the man 
who makes baskets." Parse the sentences, and tell the number and person of 
the relative, and why. 



LESSON LII. 
Rule XII. Substantives denoting the same person 
or things agree in case; as, Cicero the orator. 
Words thus used are said to be in apposition. 

EXPLANATION. — A noun is placed in apposition after another noun, to ex- 
press some attribute, description, or appellation, belonging to it. Both nouns must 
be in the same member of the sentence, that is, in the subject, or predicate. This 
Rule applies to all words used substantively, and it is only when the word in ap- 
position is a pronoun, that there is any danger of error, because in pronouns only 
the nominative and objective are different in form. The word in apposition is 
6ometimes connected with the preceding by the words as, being, and the like. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise point out the words in apposition. See if they are 
in the same case. If they are, the sentence is right ; if not, it is wrong and must 
be corrected. In the following, some sentences are right, others wrong. 

First in the hearts of his countrymen is Washington, 
the hero, the statesman, and the patriot. La Fayette, 
the friend of Washington, is no more. Your brother 
has returned, him who went abroad. I bought this pa- 
per from a bookseller, he who lives opposite; will you 
please to give it to that boy, he that stands by the door 
Is your sister well, her that was lately sick ? 

2. In this manner write correct sentences containing nouns, or a noun and its 
pronoun, in apposition. 



LESSON LIII. 
Rule XIII. The predicate substantive after a verb 
is in the same case as the subject before it; as, "It 
is IP " I took it to be him. 



104 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

EXPLANATION.— Verbs having the same case after as before them.are chiefly 
those which signify to be, to become, passive verbs of naming, making, choosing, 
and the like; as, "John became a scholar;" "David was made king." The 
nominative before the finite verb is the subject, the one after it is the predicate, 
and the verb is the copula. Hence they all form a simple sentence, and though 
the nouns denote the same person or thing and are in the same case, they are not 
in apposition, as in the preceding rule. This Rule refers both to nouns and pro- 
nouns. In questions, the verb or its auxiliary stands before both nominatives. 
When the word after the verb, according to the Rule, is a relative or interrogative 
pronoun, it stands before both the others. Here again there is danger of error 
only in the use of pronouns, and for the same reason as before. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, in each sentence, point out the verb to which the 
Rule applies, and the noun or pronoun before and after it. Tell the case of the 
one before, and why. Put the one after, in the same case as the one before, give 
the Rule for the change, and shew how it applies. Tell the subject and predi- 
cate in each sentence. 

It is me. It could not have been them. I am certain 
it was not 'me. That is the man who I thought it to be. 
Is that thee ? Whom did they say it was ? I under- 
stood it to have been he. Was it me that said so ? It 
could not have been me ; but it might have been him, 
or her, or them both. 

2. Write similar correct sentences, in each of which shall be one of the follow- 
ing verbs, with the same case after it as before it, viz., is, are, became, teas made, 
shall be chosen, to be, to be called, to be appointed. Apply the Rule as above. 



LESSON LIV. 
Rule XIV. When two nouns come together , de- 
noting the possessor and the thing possessed, the first 
is put in the possessive case; as, John's book; on 
eagle's wings. 

EXPLANATION. — Under this Rule the noun denoting the possessor is always 
in the possessive case That denoting the person or thing possessed may be in 
any case. This Rule applies to the relative pronoun and to the possessive case of 
the personal pronoun, when the noun denoting the thing possessed is understood ; 
as, " That book is mine." When expressed, the possessor is denoted by the pos- 
sessive adjective pronoun ; as, "That is my book." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 

Obs. 1. When several nouns come together in the possessive 
case, implying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) 
is annexed to the last, and understood to the rest; as, c< Jane and 
Lucy's books," i. e., books, the common property of Jane and 
Lucy. 

Obs. 2. But if common possession is not implied, or if several 
words intervene, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to 
each: as, "' Jane's and Lucy's books/'' i. e., books, some of which 
are Jane : s,and others Lucy's. 

Obs. 3. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms 
than one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only; 
as, "Julius Caesar's Commentaries. ;; ; The Bishop of London's 
Charge. " 

Obs. 4. The latter or governing substantive is frequently un- 
derstood- as, ( 'He stays at his fathers" (house). 

Obs. 5. The preposition of, with the objective, is frequently 
equivalent to the possessive, but not always. In the use of it, 
both harshness and ambiguity should be avoided. 

$5^ For several of the minutiae belonging to this Rule see Gr.. 
§§ 62, 63. An.& Pr. Gr. 839-850. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise point out the noun or pronoun denoting the pos- 
sessor, and the noun denoting the thing possessed, and if understood supply it 
Tut the word denoting the possessor in the possessive case. When several words 
coming together should be in the possessive, or when the name is complex, add 
the sign of the possessive ('s) to the proper term. 

The boys book. The girls bonnet. The Ladys book, 
a birds nest, a bear skin. A mothers tenderness and a 
fathers care, are" natures gifts for mans advantage. A 
horse tooth. James and Thomas feet are cold. Wil- 
liams and Marys reign. Pratt's, Woodford's, & Co.'s 
bookstore is in New- York. James loss is Thomas gain. 
The Farmers Guide. The Scholars Companion. The 
Courts session is put off. The meeting's president was 
appointed. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain two nouns, one denotiiig 
the possessor, in the proper case, the other the thing possessed. 



106 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON LV. 

Rule XV. When the present or perfect partici- 
ple is used as a noun, a substantive before it is put in 
the possessive case; as, u Much depends on the pupiPs 
composing frequently ;" "His having done so is evident." 

EXPLANATION. — The present participle is used as a verbal noun, whenever 
it is the subject of a verb, or the object of a transitive verb or preposition. 

Obs. A pronoun before the verbal noun, must be the possessive 
pronoun, and not the possessive case; as, " Much depends on 
your (not yours,) composing frequently." 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following Exercise, tell which is the verbal noun, and how you know it 
to be used as such. If a noun stands before it, put that noun in the proper case, 
and give the rale. 

My brother being sick is the cause of his absence. 
A man making a fortune depends partly on him pursu- 
ing a proper course. John attempting too much was 
the cause of his failure. Hers going away was not ob- 
served. The ship sailing was delayed. 

2. Write short sentences similar to the above, point out the verbal noun, and 
eee that the noun before it is in the proper case. 



LESSON LVL 
Rule XVI. When the present participle, used as 
a noun, has an article before it, it should have the 
preposition of after it; as, In the keeping of his 
commandments there is a great reward. 

EXPLANATION.— The same as in the preceding Rule. 
Obs. 1. The sense will often be the same, if both the article 
and the preposition be omitted; but the one should not be omitted 
without the other; thus. In keeping his commandments, &c. In 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 10? 

seme cases however, these two modes express very different ideas, 
and therefore attention to the sense is necessary. 

Obs. 2. When a possessive case or a possessive pronoun pre- 
cedes the participle, as in Rule XV., of usually follows it; but 
not always, and never when a preposition follows the participle; 
as, His depending on promises proved his ruin. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following Exercise, point out the participial noun and tell how you know 
it to be so used. See what words are before and after it, and if not right accord- 
ing to the Rule, make them so, and give the Rule for the change. 

Learning of any thing well requires application. The 
doing our duty is commendable. By reading of good 
books the mind is improved. Of the making many 
books there is no end. By exercising of our faculties 
they are improved. The giving to every one his own 
is a sacred duty. Eeading of novels is a wasting time. 



LESSON LVII. 

Rule XVII. The past participle^ and not the past 
tense , should be used after the verbs have and be ; as 3 
u I have written" (not wrote.) u I am chosen. 

EXPLANATION. — This rule can be violated only in the use of verbs in 
which the past tense and past participle differ in spelling. Before a past partici- 
ple, have and be are auxiliaries, the former, in the active voice; the latter, in the 
passive. 

Obs. 1. The past participle should not be used instead of 
the past tense; thus it is improper to say, " he begun, " for u he 
began;" he run, for " he ran;" " he done," for " he did;" " he 
seen," for " he saw." 

Obs. 2. The present participle active, and not the past, is 
often used after the verb to be, to express continued suffering of 
an action; as, li The house is building," not "being built."— 
Gr., § 25. 190, An. <fc Pr. Gr. 456, and App. V. 



108 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

v 

EXERCISES. 

3 . In the following Exercise, when the past tense stands after the auxilia- 
ries have, or be, change it into the past participle, and give the Rule for the 
change. 

He should have wrote. Have you spoke to the mas- 
ter? I am almost froze. She has just began to read. 
James has broke his arm. You should have drove more 
slowly. He has drank too much, and shou'd be took 
home. He might have rode if he had chose. 

2. Correct the following errors, and give a reason for the change. 

I seen him an hour ago. I done what you told me. 
James run a mile in ten minutes, and had not began to 
be tired. The school begun yesterday. He ought to 
have w r ent, or at least to have wrote. That is wrong, 
you had not ought to done it. 

3. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one of the following verbs, 
in the past, or past-perfect, indicative, active, viz., begin, run, sing, write, freeze, 
eat, drink. Parse the sentences, and apply the Rule. 

4. Write short sentences with the following verbs in the passive voice ; viz., 
write, begin, shake, sink, speak, give. Parse them, and apply the Rule. 



LESSON LVIII. 

Rule XVIII. The infinitive mood is governed by 
verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as, I desire to learn — 
A desire to learn — desirous to learn. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

I. One verb being the subject of another , is put in the infini- 
tive; as, Li To study is profitable." 

II. One verb governs another as its object in the infinitive; as, 
Boys love to play. 

III. The infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or de- 
sign, of a preceding act; as, " Some who came to scoff, remain- 
ed to pray. ,} 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 109 

IV. In comparisons, the infinitive is put after so — as ; too, or 
than ; as ; " Be so good as to read this letter." 

V. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after the verbs 
bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let in the active voice, 
nor after let in the passive. 

Also sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, have, and know. 
Rem. The infinitive, as the subject or the object of a verb, may have a sub- 
ject of its own in the objective; as, For us to lie is base. I wished him to go. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, tell which verb is in the infinitive mood, and what 
governs it. State whether it is the subject or object of the governing verb. In- 
serter omit to, the sign of the infinitive, and give a reason according to the Rule. 

Strive learn. Cease do evil. Learn do well. He 
needs not to write. I would have you to take care. He 
dares not to do a wicked action ; nor will he dare do it. 1 
heard him to say so. He was heard say so. Let James 
to do this. ' Bid him to speak to me. Did you see him 
to do that? No, but I heard him to do it. 

2. Write short sentences, in each of which shall be one verb in the infinitive 
mood. Parse them, and apply the Rule. 



LESSON LIX. 

Rule XIX. 1. When doubt and futurity are both 
implied, the subjunctive mood is used; as. Though 
he fall, (i. e., at some future time,) he shall arise 
again. 

2. When doubt only, and not futurity ', is implied, 
the indicative is used; as, If he speaks (i. e., now,) 
as he thinks, he may be safely trusted. 

EXPLANATION.— Doubt and futurity are both implied when the- auxiliary, 
shall, or slwuld, referring to future time, can be inserted before the verb without 
changing the meaning : thus, " Though he fall," and " Though he should fall," 
mean the same thing. It is only in the present tense, and third person singular 
that there is danger of error under this Rule, except in the verb to be. 

10 



J 10 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

REMARK. — Many of the best writers, and some distinguished grammarians, 
often use the subjunctive present when mere doubt or contingency is expressed j 
but in this even they are not uniform, while the weight of authority is evidently in 
favor of the above Rules. A general adherence to them would have this advan- 
tage, that the mood used would be a certain guide to the sense intended. 

Sub-Rule. — Lest and that annexed to a command , require the 
subjunctive mood; as, Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. 
Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad. 

Obs. The subjunctive mood, in the past tense, expresses 
a supposition with respect to something present, but implies a de- 
nial of the thing supposed; as. If I were a nightingale I would 
sing; implying, I am not. 

EXERCISES. 

In the following sentences, state whether the verb following " if" or "though" 
should be in the subjunctive or indicative mood, and why; and make the neces- 
sary correction. 

If there be a rule it should be observed. Though he 
be rich he is not happy. If the mail arrives to-morrow 
we shall have letters. If he studies diligently when he 
goes to school he will improve. If he is but discreet 
when he goes abroad he will gain friends. If he have 
money he must have earned it. 



LESSON LX. 

Rule XX. 1. Conjunctions connect words or sen- 
tences. 

2. Conjunctions couple the same moods and tenses 
of verbs j and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, Do 
good, and seek peace. He and I are well. 

. EXPLANATION.— The reason of this Rule is, that words thus coupled are for 
the most part in the same construction; that is, nouns connected must be in the 
same case, because they are nominatives to the same verb, or governed by the 
same noun, verb, or preposition ; and verbs thus coupled have usually the same 
nominative. In respect of case, errors occur chiefly in the use of pronouns. 

Obs. 1. When conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, 
or when a contrast is stated with but, not, though, &c, thenomi- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 J 

native is generally repeated; as, He may return, but he will not 
remain. 

Obs. 2. The relative after than is usually in the objective case; 
as, " Alfred, than whom," &c. 

Obs. 3. After verbs of doubting, fearing, denying, that should 
be used, and not lest, but, but that; as, They feared that (not 
lest,) he would die. 

Obs. 4. In the compound tenses, verbs coupled in the same 
tense have the auxiliary expressed with the first and understood 
to the rest; as, John can read, write, and spell. When different 
tenses are coupled, the auxiliary must always be expressed; as 
He has come, but he will not stay. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following, point out the connected verbs. If they have the same nomi- 
native, put them in the same mood and tense. If they must be in different moods 
or tenses, repeat the nominative ; and if that is a noun, repeat it by its pronoun. 
Point out the connected nouns or pronouns, and put them in the same case. 

He reads and wrote well. If he say it and does it, 
I am content. If he be at home, and is well, give him 
the letter. My father has read the book, and will re- 
turn it to-morrow. James and me ran all the way. That 
is a small matter between you and I. Him and I are 
great friends, and so are Mary and me. Nobody knows 
that but her and me. 

2. Write short sentences, in which two or more verbs are connected in the same 
mood and tense, and notice particularly Obs. 4. Put the verbs in the present— in 
the past, the present-perfect, &c. Express the same ideas with the verbs in the 
passive voice. 

3. Write sentences containing two or more verbs in different moods and tenses, 
paying attention to Obs. 1. ; others, containing two or more nouns or pronouns 
connected in the same case. 



LESSON LXI. 

Rule XXI. Some conjunctions and adverhs have 
their corresponding connectives ; thus, 



112 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Neither requires nor after it; as*, Neither he nor his brother was in. 

Though, yet ; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes, &c. 

Whether, or ; Whether he go or stay. 

Either, or; I will either write or send. 

A e, as; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. 

As, so; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be. 

So, as; (with a negative expressing inequality) He is not so 

wise as his brother. 
So, — ■ that; (expressing consequence) 1 am so weak that I cannot 

walk. 

Not only, but also ; Not only his property, but also his life was in danger. 

If, then; (in reasoning) If he can do it, then he will do it. 

Note. As and so in the antecedent member of a comparison, are properly ad- 
verbs. 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule means that when any of the above correspond- 
ing terms stands in one member of a sentence, the other term should stand in the 
other member. After "though," "yet" is sometimes understood. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the corresponding terms in the following sentences, and make the 
second correspondent to the first, or the first to the second, as the sense requires. 
Supply the correspondent term where improperly omitted. 

He will not do it himself, nor let another do it for him. 
Though he slay me so will I trust in him. That is so 
far as I am able to go. This book is equally good as 
that one. Nothing is so bad as it cannot be worse. He 
was not only diligent, but successful in his studies. It 
is neither cold or hot. 

2. Write correct sentences, each of which shall contain one pair of the above 
corresponding terms, and state what they express. 



LESSON LXII. 

Rule XXII. The comparative degree and the pro- 
noun other require than after thern^ and such requires 
as; as ? Greater than I; No other than he; Such as 
do well. 

Sub-Rule. — When two objects are compared, the comparative 
is generally used; but when more than two, the superlative; as, 
James is older than John Mary is the wisest of them all. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 113 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule may be regarded as a continuation of the pre- 
ceding one. And the correspondent terms are, the comparative degree and than: 
other— than : such— as. The same explanation, therefore, will suffice. For the 
minutiae in the use of the comparative and superlative degree, see Gr. § 71. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, point out the comparative degree, or other corres- 
pondent terms, and make the one correspond to the other, according to the Rule. 

James writes better as I do. There were more be- 
sides him engaged in that business. No more but two 
can play at this game. The days are longer in sum- 
mer besides they are in winter. Has James no other 
book but this ? This is such conduct that I did not ex- 
pect. John is the wisest of the two. Which of all 
these books is the prettier ? 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain a word in the compara- 
tive degree, or the word other or such followed by the proper correspondent term. 



LESSON LXIII. 
Rule XXIII. Double co?nparatives and superla- 
tives are improper; Thus we ought not to say, 
" more better ," " most best • '" but," better," " best." 

EXPLANATION.— The only error likely to occur under this Rule, is the pre- 
fixing of more and most to adjectives already compared by adding er and est: or 
the adding of er and est to adjectives already compared by prefixing more and 
most. The Rule means that only one method of comparison should be used. 

Obs. It is improper to compare adjectives whose signification 
does not admit of increase or diminution, and of course not of 
comparison. For such adjectives see Lesson XI., Obs. 4 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following, point out the adjectives in the comparative or superlative de- 
gree. If double, correct the sentence by removing one of the forms of com- 
parison. 

James is much more taller than Henry. How much 
more better it is to get wisdom than gold. Subtract the 
lesser number from the greater. He began to grow 

10* 



114 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

worser and worser. Thomas was the most liveliest man 
in the company. After the most straitest sect of our 
religion. What is more sweeter than honey, or more 
stronger than a lion ? 

2. Write sentences each containing an adjective or adverb in the comparative 
or superlative degree, and avoid the error pointed out in the Rule and explanation. 



LESSON LXIV. 

Rule XXIV. 1. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs. 

2. Jidverbs should not be used as adjectives; thus, 
" Use a little wine for thine often infirmities," should 
be, "for thy frequent infirmities. 5 ' 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule means, first, that when a verb, adjective, or ad- 
verb, is to be modified by any word, that word must be an adverb, and not an ad- 
jective, or other part of speech; and secondly, that an adjective, and not an ad- 
verb, is used with nouns to express a property or quality belonging to them. 
Where always refers to place ; when, and then, to time. 

Obs. I. Where should not be used for in which, except when 
place is referred to; as, the situation in which I left him, not 
where I left him; because " situation" does not here refer to place. 
So, is often used elliptically for an adjective, a noun, or a who^e 
sentence ; as, They are rich, we are not so. He is a good scholar, 
and I told you so. 

Obs. 2. Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a 
few others, are sometimes joined to substantives; as, Not only 
the men, but the women also were present. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the modifying words in the following sentences. If not adverbs, 
make them so, and give the Rule. 

Come quick. James does that very good. That was 
done excellent. Time moves rapid. Apparent slow 
people accomplish much if sufficient steady. You can 
read excellent well. It is real cold. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

2 In the following, point out the adverb improperly used. Shew why it is so ; 
change it for the proper term, and give the Rule. 

Thine often infirmities. Come the soonest day possi- 
ble. The soonest time will be late enough. The then 
ministry opposed the measure. The condition where I 
found him was truly bad. He was here last year, since 
when I have not seen him. 

3. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain an adverb, (See Lesson 
XXXI.,) modifying a verb or adjective, and see that it is placed as directed in the 
next Rule and Explanation. 



LESSON LXV. 

Rule XXV. Adverbs are for the most part placed 
before adjectives^ after a verb in the simple form^ 
and after the first auxiliary in the compound form; 
as, He is very attentive, behaves well^ and is much 
esteemed. 

EXPLANATION.— This is to be considered only as a general Rule, to which 
there are many exceptions. Indeed no rule for the position of the adverb can be 
given, which is not liable to exceptions. The best direction for the use of this 
Rule is to place the adverb where the sense requires, having due regard to tho 
harmony of the sentence. [See Gr., § 74.} 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences. place the adverb as the Rule directs, provided the 
sense will thereby be clearly expressed. 

A man industrious eminently. He is agreeable al- 
ways. He sweetly sings, charmingly converses, and 
prudently conducts himself on all occasions. He unaf- 
fectedly spoke. He manfully has contended for the 
prize, and certainly will obtain it. Time will wait never. 
He could have not done it. He will be always trusty. 

2. The following sentences have the adverb placed according to the Rule, but 
the sense and harmony of the sentence evidently require it to be in a different 
position. 



116 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Men contend frequently for trifles. I only* saw three 
persons. Of the books I sent him he only read one. 
James can very well read! You should slowly write. 
He might plainly have told him. He not only saw her 
pleased, but greatly pleased. 

3. Write a number of short sentences, each of which shall contain one or more 
adverbs correctly placed. [See List, Lesson XXXI. ] 

4. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following ad- 
verbs, viz., only, merely, solely, chiefly, first, at least, and tell the word winch they 
modify. Place the adverbs in as many different positions in each sentence as you 
can. so as to make sense, and mark the change of meaning. 



LESSON LXVI. 
Rule XXVI. Two negatives in the same sentence 
are improper : unless we mean to affirm] thus, "I 
cannot by no means allow it," should be, " I cannot 
by any means allow it." Or, u I can by no means 
allow it." 

EXPLANATION.— The reason of this Rule is, that one negative destroys the 
other, so that the two are equivalent to an affirmative. A negative is often made 
by the syllables dis, in, im, un, &c, prefixed to a word. And when this is 
the case, another negative is sometimes used to express a diminished kind of af- 
firmation; as, "He was not unkind." An affirmation made by two distinct nega- 
tive terms is harsh, and should be avoided. Negative terms are such as iVb, not 
neither, nor, never, &c. [See Gr., § 75.] 

EXERCISES. 

1. Point out the two negatives in the following sentences. Shew why they are 
wrong; correct them and give the Rule. 

I cannot eat no more. He is not able to walk no far- 
ther. We cannot do that in no way. He will never be 
no taller. Never do nothing of the kind. Time and 
tide will not wait for no man. No man never did that. 

* Note. The improper position of the adverb only, often occasions ambiguity, 
and no word is more frequently placed improperly. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



117 



2. Make ahon sentences, each of which shall contain one of the following woids, 
worthy, just, discreet, kind, obliging, agreeable, happy, firm, &c. Then prefix to 
these words, the appropriate negative prefix mentioned above. Then insert a nega- 
tive word in each sentence, and mark the difference of meaning with each cl 
thus, ;i IIe is a worthy man," " He is an unworthy man," "He is not an unwor- 
thy man." 



LESSON LXVII. 
Rule XXVII. Appropriate prepositions must be 
used before names of places ; thus, 

1. To — is used after a verb of motion, to express destination ; as, He icent to Spain ; 

but it is omitted before home; as, He icent home yesterday. 

2. At — is used after the verbs to be, touch, arrive, land: as, I icas at Rochester. 

3. In— is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live in Albany, in 

the State of New- York. 

4. At — is used before single houses, -villages, towns, and foreigr cities; as, He is 

at home ; He resided at Gretna Green ; at York , at Rome. 

One inhabitant speaking of another's residence, says, He lives in State Street ; 
or if the word number be used, — at No. State Street. 

EXPLANATION. — This general Rule includes four specific Rules under it, 
marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and, in applying it.the specific Rule is that wnich should be given. 
The preposition is sometimes understood. 

Obs. Interjections sometimes have an objective after them, but 
they never govern it.~ It is always governed by an active transi- 
tive verb, or preposition understood; as, Ah me\ i. e., What has 
happened to me ? 

EXERCISES. 

[. In the following sentences, change the preposition used, for that which the 
Rule requires, and give the specific Rule. 

I have been to home. Have you been to Boston ? 
They live in Union Village : formerly they lived at New- 
York. He has been at England, and has just returned 
to home. We touched on France on our way to home. 
He lives to Washington, at B. Street, but resided for- 
merly in No. 50, Broadway, New-York. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the name of some city 
village, counny, or state, preceded by a verb of motion, or by the verb be, live, 
diceU, &c, and the appropriate preposition. 



118 



PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 



LESSON LXVIII. 
Rule XXVIII. Certain words and phrases must 
be followed by appropriate prepositions; such as. 



Accuse of 

Acquit of. 

Adapted to. 

Ask or inquire o/a person for what we 

wish to see,— after what we wish to 

hear of. 
Believe in, sometimes on. 
Betray to a person, — into any thing else. 
Call on a person, — at a house. 
Change for. 
Compare with, in respect of quality, — 

to, for the sake of illustration. 
Confide in. 

Conformable, consonant to. 
Conversant with men, — in things. 
Copy from life, nature, — after a parent. 
Dependent upon. 
Die of disease, — by an instrument or 

violence. 
Differ from. 
Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, — diminution of. 
Disappointed in what we have, — of 

what we expect 
Discourage/row. 
Discouragement to. 
Engaged in a work,— -for a time. 
Equal to, with. 

Exception /rom,— sometimes to. 
Expert in, (before a noun,) — at, (before 

an active participle.) 



Familiar to, with : A thing is familiar to 
us ; we are familiar with it. 

Tree from. 

Glad of, something gained by ourselves,— 
at, something that befals another. 

Independent of or on. 

Indulge with what is not habitual, — in 
what is habitual. 

Insist upon 

Made of 

Marry to. 

Need of. 

Observation of 

Prejudice against. 

Prevail (to persuade) with, on, upon,— 
(to overcome,) over, against. 

Profit by. 

Protect (others,) from, — (ourselves,)— 
against. 

Provide toith or for. 

Reduce (to subdue) under,— in other ca- 
ses, to ; as, to powder. 

Regard to. 

Sick of 

Swerve from. 

Taste (meaning capacity or inclination) 
for, — (meaning actual enjoyment) of. 

Tax with, (e. g., a crime,)— for the state. 

Value upon or on. 

Worthy of— sometimes the of is under- 
stood. 



EXPLANATION.— As words connected by prepositions are differently related, 
care must be taken to employ the preposition which best expresses the relation 
intended. The sense and the practice of correct writers will here be our best 
guide. The above are only a few examples out of many. 

Obs. The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective, 
usually follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa: as, 
Confide in, — confident in, — confidence in. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

EXERCISES. 

1. Change the preposition, in the following sentences, for that required by the 
Rule. 

He was accused with robbery, and acquitted from the 
charge. I have been calling upon an old friend. Call 
in the post-office. I differ with you in that matter. 
John died by consumption, Henry died of the sword, 
and Kobert is sick with the jaundice. Try to profit from 
experience. You have a taste of poetry. Conversant 
in men and things. Compare this piece to that, and see 
which is the best. I could never bear the taste for to- 
bacco. This is an exception against the general rule. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain one or more of the words 
in the preceding table, followed by the appropriate preposition. 



LESSON LXIX. 

Rule XXIX. In the use of verbs, and words that 
in point of time relate to each other ? the order of 
time must be observed; as ? " I have known him these 
many years;" not 5 " I know him these many years. 5 ' 

EXPLANATION.— This Rule is general, and here also the sense is the best 
guide. The following principles may be noticed in this place. 

1. That which is always true, is expressed in the present tense. 

2. That which is past, but viewed as continued to the present, 
is expressed in the present-perfect tense. 

3. Verbs having the auxiliaries shall, will, may, can, can be 
associated ia a sentence with other verbs in the present only; those 
with might, could, would, should, with verbs in the past. 

4. The present infinitive expresses what is cotemporary with, 
or subsequent to, the time of the governing verb ; the perfect in- 
finitive expresses what is antecedent to it. [See Gr., § 78.] 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences point out the verb which is wrong in respect of 
tense Put it in the proper tense, and tell why it is so changed. 



120 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

It was said that fever always produced thirst ; that 
heat always expanded metals ; and that truth was im- 
mutable. He is now absent a week. I have been 
abroad last year. If he would lend me that book I will 
be obliged to him, He can do it if he would. I intend- 
ed to have written ; but I still hoped he would have 
come. Rome is said to be built seven hundred years 
before the Christian era. Nero is said to persecute the 
Christians. He has been gone long before I knew it. 

2. Write short sentences, and express in each, something which you hoped, fear- 
ed, desired, intended to do yesterday, before yesterday, — which you hope, fear, 
&c. to do to-day, to-morrow. Also what some one did yesterday, — before y ester- 
day, — always does,— does now, — has just done now, — will do to-morrow, — before 
to-morrow night. 



LESSON LXX. 
Rule XXX. When a member of a sentence refers 
to two different clauses, it should be equally applica- 
ble to both; as, He has not been, and cannot &e, cen- 
sured for such conduct. 

EXPLANATION.— In order to see whether sentences are correct according to 
this Rule, join the member of the sentence common to the two clauses, to each 
of them separately, so as to make two sentences. If both of the sentences are 
grammatically correct, and express the sense intended, the sentence is right — if 
not, it is wrong, and must be corrected. Thus, for example, " He has not, and 
he cannot, be censured," is wrong, because if you add the member " be censur- 
ed," to the first clause, it will make -"He has not be censured," which is incor- 
rect, according to Rule XVII. This must be corrected by inserting " been" after 
"has not," so as to read "He has not been, and he cannot be, censured." The 
different clauses should be correctly marked by punctuation. 

This rule is often violated in sentences in which there are two comparisons of 
a different nature and government. Thus, " He was more beloved, but not so 
much admired as Cinthio." Here, "as Cinthio," is applicable to the clause "so 
much admired," but cannot be connected with "more beloved." In such senten- 
ces as this, the proper way is to complete the construction of the first member, 
and leave that of the second understood; as, " He was more beloved than Cindiio, 
but not so much admired" (as Cinthio.) 

A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement, should be carefully 
attended to. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 



EXERCISES. 



Make trial of -the following sentences, as directed in the Explanation. If the 
first clause joined with the common member of the sentence, is not grammati- 
cally correct, point out the error and correct it. Do so with, the second clause. 

He always has, and he always will be, punctual. They 
might, and probably were, good. James is taller, but 
not so strong, as his brother. His book is^not so good, 
though larger, than I expected. This house is larger, 
not so convenient, as that one. I ever have, and I 
ever will, say so. ' ; He depends, and confides in me,*' is 
just as incorrect as, ; * He confides and depends upon me." 



LESSON LXXI. 
Rule XXXI. A substantive whose case depends on 
no other word) is put in the nominative. This occurs 
under the four following 

SPECIAL RULES. 

Rule 1. A substantive with a participle, ichose case depends 
on no other word, is put in the nominative absolute; as. l - He be- 
ing gone, only two remain. ;? 

Rule 2. A person or thing addressed, without a verb or govern- 
ing word, is put in the nominative independent; as, " I remain, 
dear sir. yours truly:" " Plato, thou reasonest well.*' 

Rule 3. A substantive, unconnected in mere exclamation, is 
put in the nominative independent; as, " the times ! 

Rule 4. A substantive used by pleonasm before an affirmation, 
is put in thenominaiive independent; as, The boy, oh! where was he? 

EXERCISES* 
til the following sentences. point out the pronouns used absolutely, and Cie par- 
ticiples joined with them. If in the wrong case, correct them by the Rule. 

The boys all ran away, him and me excepted. Me 
staying behind, the rest went forward. Them being 
now come, we may proceed. 

11 Thee, only thee, directing all our way." 



122 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

Rule XXXII. The article a or an is put before 
common nouns in the singular number^ when used in- 
definitely: the is *put before common nouns either 
singular or plural, when used definitely. 

EXPLANATION.— It is impossible to give a precise Rule for the use of the 
a nicle in every case. The best general Rule is to observe what the sense requires. 
The following usages may be noticed. For others see Gr., § 81. 

Obs. 1. The article is omitted before a noun that is unlimited, 
or, that stands for a whole species; as, Man is mortal; and before 
the names of minerals, metals, arts, &c. By usage some nouns 
denoting the species, have the article always prefixed; as, The 
dog is a more grateful animal than the cat. The lion is a noble 
animal. Others never have it; thus, Lead is softer than iron. 
Wood is lighter than stone. 

Obs. 2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have 
no article when they both refer to one person or thing; as, He is 
a better reader than writer. 

Obs. 3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to 
the same subject, the article should be placed before the first, and 
omitted before the rest; when they belong to different subjects 
'he article is prefixed to each; thus, " A red and whife rose," 
indicates one rose, partly red and partly white. u A red and a 
white rose," means two roses, one red and one white. "John- 
son, the bookseller and stationer," denotes one person. " John- 
son, the bookseller, and the stationer," denotes two. 

EXERCISES. 

1. The following sentences are wrong only in the use of the article. Shew why 
they are wrong, and correct them. 

A great talents without a virtue are dangerous. A 
man is mortal. A time flies. The money is scarce. 
John is a better farmer than a scholar. The black and 
the white spaniel runs fastest. The black and white 
spaniel run together. The time and the tide wait foi 
no man. A red and a white rose grows on this bush. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 

The black and white man came together. Smith, the 
tanner and currier, entered into partnership. Smith, the 
tanner and the currier, is a man of a great industry. 

2. Write short sentences, each of which shall contain the article a, or an, or the* 
Others, which shall contain nouns without an article. 



LESSON LXXIII. 

Rule XXXIII. Jin ellipsis or omission of words 
is admissible, when they can be supplied in the 
mind with such certainty and readiness as not to ob- 
scure the sense. Thus, instead of saying, He was a 
learned man, and he was a wise man, and he was a 
good man; we say. He was a learned, wise, and 
good man. 

EXPLANATION.— There is a constant tendency in man to express his ideas 
in the fewest words possible. Whenever, therefore, a word can be spared from a 
sentence without obscuring its meaning, that word is often left out. This is called 
ellipsis. Thus, instead of the full form of the sentence, as follows, " I rise at six 
hours of the clock in the morning, I breakfast at seven hours of the clock in the 
morning, I go to the school at nine hours of the clock, and study till twelve hours 
of the clock," we can say, (and be equally well understood,) " I rise at six, break- 
fast at seven, go to school at nine, and study till twelve." This is the origin of ab- 
breviated sentences ; and in order to parse such, or to understand their grammati- 
cal construction, the words left out must be supplied. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, leave out such words as may be omitted without 
obscuring the sense. 

He had an affectionate father and an affectionate 
mother. You may read, or you may write, as you 
please. Will you study, or will you not study ? I have 
been at London, and I have seen the queen. A house 
and a garden. He would neither go, nor would he send. 

2. In the following sentences, supply the words left out, so as to shew their full 
construction. 



124 



PRACTICAL LESSONS W 



It is six o'clock ; we may study till seven. We have 
done it, but you have not. John will read, and Thomas 
write letters. This apple is larger than that, but not so 
sweet. Give this apple to James, that to Eobert, and 
the other to Mary. I have heard and read much about 
Washington and the Eevolution. u Sun, stand thou 
still upon Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the valley of 
Ajalon." 



LESSON LXXIV. 

Rule XXXIV. An ellipsis is not allowable when 
it would obscure the sentence^ weaken its force^or be 
attended with an impropriety; for example, "We 
speak that we do know, and testify that we have 
seen," should be, " We speak that which we do 
know, and testify that which we have seen." 

EXPLANATION. — The sense will always be obscured when, on account of im- 
proper ellipsis, the construction of the sentence is rendered doubtful, or is not 
clearly and readily perceived. When a sentence or clause is emphatic, ellipsis is 
less allowable. The antecedent to the relative, except in poetry, is seldom omit- 
ted; and the relative itself, if in the nominative case, never. The article should 
be repeated when a different form of it is required; as, "A horse and an ass." 

EXERCISES. 

In each of the following sentences, point out the improper ellipsis ; show 
why it is improper ; and correct it. 

Cicero made orations, both on private and public oc- 
casions. He is the most diligent scholar I ever knew. 
Thou hast that is thine: Thine the kingdom, the power, 
and the glory. Depart in peace, be ye warmed, clothed, 
and filled. I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. 
That is the best can be said of him. He has a house 
and orchard. We must all go the way we shall not 
return. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 

LESSON LXXV. 

Model of Syntactical Parsing. 

In syntactical parsing, the pupil is required, besides parsing the 
word etymologically, [See Lesson XXXVI.] to state its relation 
to other words in the sentence, and the rules by which these rela- 
tions are governed. To illustrate this more clearly, the same sen- 
tence parsed etymologically, Lesson XXXVII., is here parsed 
syntactically. 

" Give instruction to a wise man, and he will be 

yet wiser." 

" Give," is a verb, transitive, irregular; give, gave, given; in 
the imperative, active, second person, singular, and 
agrees with its nominative thou, understood. Rule I. 
" A verb agrees." &c. 

" Instruction," is a noun; neuter,in the objective singular, govern 
ed by give. Rule II. "A transitive verb." &c. 

u To," is a preposition, and expresses the relation between give 
and man, as its remote object. 

"A," is an article, indefinite, belongs to man. Rule XXXII. ' 
" The article a is used," &c. 

" Wise," is an adjective, compared, wise, wiser, wisest; and ex- 
presses a quality of man. Rule VIII. " Every adjec- 
tive," &c. 

11 Man," is a noun, masculine, in the objective singular, governed 
by to. Rule III. " Prepositions govern," &c. 

" And," is a conjunction, copulative, and connects the two clauses. 
Definition. " A conjunction is a word," &c. 

" He," is a third personal pronoun, masculine, the nominative, 
singular ; it stands instead of man, with which it agrees 
Rule X. " Pronouns agree," &c, and is the subject or 
nominative of will be. 

"Will be," is a verb, intransitive, irregular; am, was, been; in 
the future, indicative, active; third person, singular ; and 
affirms of its subject he, with which it agrees. Rule I 
11 A verb agrees," &c. 

K Yet." is an adverb, modifying wiser. Rule XXIV. " Adverbs 
modify," &c. 

11* 



126 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

"Wiser," is an adjective, comparative degree; wise, wiser, 
wisest; and belongs to man, or is predicated of he. Rule 
VIII. " Every adjective," &c. 

Questions similar to those suggested at the close of Lesson 
XXXVII, may be proper here also. 

For Exercises in Syntactical parsing, the pupil may now return 
to Lesson XXXVIII., or take any plain passage in the reading 
lessons of the Spelling Book; or the ordinary reading books used 
in the school may be used for this purpose, as the teacher may 
direct. 



LESSON LXXVI. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Rules of Syntax. 

In order to correct the following Exercises, examine each sentence carefully, 
and see wherein it is wrong. See, first, whether words -that should agree, do so— 
the verb with its nominative— the numeral adjective with its noun — the pronoun 
personal and relative, with its substantive ; second, whether nouns and pronouns 
are in the case which the word governing them requires ; and lastly, whether the 
words are arranged in the order which the Rules require. Having found the error, 
correct it, and give the Rule for the correction. These Exercises, when corrected, 
or in the time of correcting, may be used as Exercises in Syntactical parsing. 

1. John writes beautiful. I shall never do so no more. The 
train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you present at last 
meeting? He need not be in so much haste. He dare not act 
otherwise than he does. Him who they seek is in the house. 
George or I is the person. They or he is much to be blamed. 
The troop consist of fifty men. Those set of books was a valu- 
able present. That pillar is sixty foot high. His conduct evinced 
the most extreme vanity. These trees are remarkable tall. 

2. He acted bolder than was expected. This is he who I gave 
the book-to. Eliza always appears amiably. Who do you lodge 
with now? He was born at London, but he died in Bath. If he 
be sincere, I am satisfied. Her father and her were at church. 
The master requested him and I to read more distinctly. It is no 
more but his due. Flatterers flatter as long, and no longer than 
they have expectations of gain. John told the same story as you 
told. This is the largest tree which I have ever seen. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

3. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of pain 
Those sort of dealings are unjust. David the son of Jesse, was 
the youngest of his brothers. You was very kind to him. he said. 
Well, says I, what does thou think of him now? James is one 
of those boys that was kept in at school, for bad behaviour. 
Thou, James, did deny the deed. Neither good nor evil come of 
themselves. We need not to be afraid. It is all fell down. 

4. He expected to have gained more by the bargain. You 
should drink plenty of goat milk. It was him who spoke first 
Do you like ass milk? Is it me that you mean? Who did you 
buy your grammar from ? If one takes a wrong method at first 
setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man nor woman 
were present. I am more taller than you. She is* the same lady 
who sang so sweetly. After the most straitest sect of our reli- 
gion, I lived a Pharisee. Is not thy wickedness great? and thine 
iniquities infinite ? There is six that studies grammar. 



LESSON LXXVII. 

Punctuation. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition into 
sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, in order to 
convey to the reader the exact sense, and assist him in the proper 
delivery. The principal stops are the following: — 

The comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) the period, 
or full stop ( . ) the note of interrogation (?) the note of excla- 
mation ( ! ) the parenthesis ( ) and the dash ( — ) 

The comma represents the shortest pause; the semicolon a 
pause double that of the comma; the colon, double that of the 
semicolon; and the period, double that of the colon. 

The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the 
reader or speaker. 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, 
though very closely connected in sense and construction, require 
n pause between them. 

The Semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, 
which are less closely connected than those which are separated 
by a comma. 



12S PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, 
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon 
but not so independent as to require a period. 

The Period is used when a sentence is complete, with respect 
to the construction and the sense intended; as. " God made all 
things." " By disappointments and trials, the violence of our 
passions is tamed." " In the varieties of life, we are inured to 
habits both of the active and the passive virtues." 

The period must be used after all abbreviations; as, " A. D." 
'M. A." "Fol." 



LESSON LXXVIII. 

Of Capitals. 

In Composition the following words begin with capital letters: 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period; also after a note of interro- 
gation, or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one 
after it, are independent of each other. 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, ships, &c. 

4. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, are written in capitals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity; as, God, Most High, the Al- 
mighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places; as, 
Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon; as, 
Always remember this ancient maxim: " Know thyself." 

9. Common nouns, when personified; as, " Come, gentle 
Spring " 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; 
as, "Euclid's Elements of Geometry;" " Goldsmith's Deserted 
Village." 

Note. Other words besides the preceding, may begin with 
capitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal 
subject of the composition. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1^9 



PART FOURTH.— PROSODY. 

LESSON LXXIX. 

Of Prosody. 
30DY consists of two parts; Elocution, and Versification 

I. ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the proper management 
of the voice in reading or speaking, and comprises Accent, Quan- 
tity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone. 

II. VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number of long 
and short syllabus according to certain rules. Composition so 
arranged is called Verse, or Poetry. 

Verse is of two kinds ; Rhyme and Blank-verse. Rhyme is a similarity of 
sound in the last syllables of two or more lines arranged in a certain order. 
Poetry consisting of such lines, is sometimes called Rhyme. Blank-VERSE is 
poetry without rhyme. 

Every verse or line of poetry consists of a certain number of parts called Feet. 
The arrangement of these feet in a line according to the accent, is called Metre; 
and the dividing of a line into its component feet, is called Scanning. 

All feet used in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and 
four of three syllables ; the long syllable being marked by a straight line ( — ) and 
the short, by a curve, ( v^ ) as follows : 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISS YLLABLE. 

A Trochee — ^ A Dactyl — ^ ^ 

An Iambus w — An Amphibrach ^ — >- 

A Spondee An Anapaest ^ ^ — 

A Pyrrhic ^ ^ A Tribrach w w ^ 

In English, accented syllables are long, unaccented are short 
The Metres in most common use, are the Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapastic 
Iambic Metre is adapted to grave and serious subjects ; has the second, fourth, 
and other even syllables, accented or long; and the first, third, and other uneven 
syllables, unaccented or short. Of this verse there are various kinds, some hav- 
ing two feet, some three, some four, some five. The last is called heroic mea- 
sure, and is the same that is used by Milton, Young, Thomson, Pollok, &c. 
When the last line of a stanza is extended to six feet, it is called Alexandrine 
Trochaic Metre is quick and lively, and adapted to gay and cheerful compo- 
sition. It comprises verses of one and a half, two, three, four, five, and sometimes 
six feet ; sometimes followed by an additional syllable. 

Anap.estic Metre consists of lines of two, three, four Metres or Anapccsts 
with sometimes an additional syllable. 



130 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

LESSON LXXX. 

Composition. 

Composition is the putting of words together in sentences, for 
the purpose of expressing our ideas in writing, in the best man- 
ner, according to the Rules of Grammar, and the best usages of 
the language. 

Almost all the Exercises in the preceding Grammar, and espe- 
cially those under the Rules of Syntax, have been framed with a 
view to exercise the pupil in the elementary parts of composition, 
by leading him to vary his ideas, and to express the same idea in 
different forms; to detect and correct errors which often occur in 
the construction of sentences; and so to put him on his guard 
against similar errors; and also to form correct sentences for him- 
self, according to the particular directions laid down under the 
various Rules. In committing his own ideas to writing, in the 
form of compositions, then, all he has to do is to endeavor to se- 
lect the proper words, and to combine these so as to express his 
meaning correctly, according to the Rules with which he is now 
supposed to be familiar. The few following hints may be useful. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS TO YOUNG COMPOSERS. 

1. Spell every word correctly. Pay proper attention to the use 
of capitals; always using them where they should be, and never 
where they should not be. [See Lesson LXXYIII.] 

2. Carefully avoid all vulgar expressions and cant phrases, and 
never use words which you do not understand, or which do not 
correctly express your meaning. 

3. At the end of the line never divide a word of one syllable, 
nor any word in the middle of a syllable. If there should not 
be room at the end of the line for the whole syllable, do not be- 
gin it at all, but carry it to the next line. 

4. When you have written what you intended, look over it 
carefully; see if you can improve by a better choice of words, 
or by a better arrangement of them, so as to express your mean- 
ing more clearly; and mark the changes proposed. 

5. Copy the whole over in as neat, distinct, and plain a man 
ner as you can, guarding against blots and erasures, which dis- 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 

figure any writing, dotting your i's, crossing your Vs, and point- 
ing the whole in the best manner you can, so that any person, as 
well as yourself, may easily read and understand it. 

6. Try to make every new composition better- than the one be- 
fore it. Never write carelessly, and though it may be a little 
difficult at first, a little practice will soon make it easy. 

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. 
The more simple exercises in composition are, for young begin- 
ners, so much the better. They should not be required to write 
about any thing with which they are not perfectly familiar. 

1. The following is a very simple and easy exercise. A class 
of pupils may be directed to look at a certain picture in the Spel- 
ling Book or Geography, or any other book at hand; and the 
teacher may excite their attention by asking some questions, or 
telling them something respecting it, and then direct each one, 
either in his seat or at home, to write a description of the picture, 
together with any ideas that occur to him on the subject. This 
method will furnish an endless variety of easy and useful ex- 
ercises. 

2. From pictures, the attention may be turned to real objects. 
The class may now be directed to any object or objects within 
their view, which they may be required to describe and give their 
ideas about, as before; for example, the school-house and its fur- 
niture — the business of the day, in the form of a journal — the 
principal objects in view to the south of the school- house — to the 
north— to the east — to the west. Each may be directed to de- 
scribe his own house, and the leading objects in view from it in 
different directions ; or any object which he may choose to select. 

3. Another class of easy interesting subjects may be found in 
describing familiar objects in natural history — the various seasons 
of the year, with their employments and amusements — the vari- 
ous operations of the farmer, and different mechanic arts — narra- 
tives of any accidents, or striking events that may have occurred. 

4. Short familiar epistolary correspondence, real or imaginary. 
One pupil may be directed to write to another concerning any 
thing he pleases. A post-office might be set up in the school, 
with its letter-box, to be opened at stated seasons, and its contents 
read for the amusement and instruction of the school. This ex- 



132 PRACTICAL LESSONS IN 

ercise, because voluntary, would be entered into with spirit, and 
prove of great benefit. 

5. Themes on familiar subjects may next be assigned, such us 
the following: 

Point out the evils of the following vices and improprieties, and 
make such remarks respecting them as you think proper; viz., 
Lying, Stealing, Swearing, Disobedience to parents, Sabbath 
breaking, Discontentment, Intemperance, 111 nature, Violent pas- 
sions, Penuriousness, Idleness, Cruelty to animals, Bad compa- 
ny, &c. 

Point out the benefits arising from, and make such remarks as 
you think proper, respecting, — Truth, Honesty, Sobriety, Love to 
God, Love to men, Good nature, Industry, Contentment, Kind- 
ness to the poor, Keeping good company, Proper amusements, &c. 

In all cases with beginners, it is better to require them to give 
their own thoughts on familiar subjects with which they are ac- 
quainted, than to give them subjects of an abstract nature, or of 
which they cannot be supposed to have much knowledge. In the 
former case, they will be likely to give their own thoughts in 
their own way; in the latter, they will have to resort to books, 
and instead of giving their own ideas, will be apt to copy the 
writings of others, without perhaps well understanding them. 

6. When the compositions are prepared, the errors in Gram- 
mar should be pointed out and explained, mistakes in orthogra- 
phy, capitals, punctuation, &c, corrected, or pointed out to be 
corrected, and then the whole copied, in a correct and plain man- 
ner, into a book kept for that purpose. 

Compositions of a higher order than those which have been 
suggested, would be above the years and acquirements of those 
for whom this little work is intended, and would therefore be im- 
proper. Having gone through these Lessons, pupils though 
young will be well prepared for taking up, with ease and advan- 
tage, the " Principles of English Grammar, or the Analytical and 
Practical Grammar of the English Language," and for going through 
a more thorough and critical course. 

[the end.] 



KEW XXD IMPROVED 



NATIONAL SCHOOL BOOKS, 



PUBLISHED BY 



PRATT, WOODFORD k CO., 

No. 4 COTJRTLANDT-STEEET, N. Y. 



P., W. & Co. "would respectfully call the attention of all interested in 
the subject of education to the following works published by them, as 
text-books, in nearly every branch of study; all of which are prepared 
by practical teachers of high reputation, and many of them are in use in 
almost every State of the Union. They have stood the test of the school- 
room, and received the sanction and approval of many of the beat 
educators in the country from whom numerous testimonials and recom- 
mendations are in our possession* 



BULLIONS' SERIES OF GRAMMARS AND ELEMEN 
TARY CLASSICS. 

This series consists of the following works, viz : 

I.— PRACTICAL LESSORS EN" ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Tliis little book contains a brief synopsis of the leading principles of 
English Grammar, every part of which is illustrated by a great variety 
of exercises, of the simplest character, adapted to the capacity of papilf 
at, an early age. — New edition, revised and improved. 



il- -lllE JfUNOiPi.ES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This work is intended aa a school Grammar, for the use of cJ asset 
pursuing this branch of study in the common schools, or of the junior 
Masses in academies. It embraces all that; is important on the subject^ 
expressed with accuracy, brevity, and simplicity, and is peculiarly adapt- 
ed to the purposes of instruction in public schools. 

in.— THE ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

This work, designed for the more advanced classes in schools and 
academies, is prepared on a more extended plan than the preceding, 
though not essentially different from it. The arrangement (except in 
Byntax), the definitions and rules, are the same, bat with much greater 
fulness in the illustrations and exercises, intended to lead the student into 
a thorough and critical acquaintance with the structure and use of the 
English Language. 

IV.— EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

This little work consists of selections in prose and poetry from stand 
ard writers, so arranged as to furnish a convenient and progressive course 
of Exercises in Analysis and Parsing, in every variety of style, with such 
occasional references to the grammars as are deemed necessary to explain 
peculiar or difficult constructions. To this is prefixed direction* for the 
analysis of sentences and models both of analysis and parsing. 

V.— THE PRINCIPLES OF LATIN GRAMMAR 

This work is upon the foundation of Adam's Latin Grammar, so long 
and favorably known as a text-book, and combines with all that is excel- 
lent in that work many important corrections and improvements suggest- 
ed by .subsequent writers, or the results of the author's own reflection and 
observation, during many years, as a classical teacher. 

VL-JACOBS' LATIN READER 

This work forms a sequel to the Grammar, and an introduction to the 
study of Latin classic authors. It begins with a series of simple and 
plain sentences mostly selected from classic writers, to exemplify and 
illustrate the leading constructions of the language, followed by Reading 
Lessons, of pure and simple Latin, chiefly narrative, by which the pupil, 
while he becomes familiar with the construction of the language, is also 
made acquainted with many of the most prominent characters and mytho- 
logical fables of antiquity, as well as with the leading events of Roman 
history. Throughout the work, references are constantly made, at the 
foot of the page, to the Grammar and Introduction, when necessary to 
explain the construct ion or assist the pupil in his preparations. 



YIL— FIRST LESSONS IN GREEK 

This work is intended chiefly for those who begin the study of Greek 
at any early age ; and for this reason contains only the outlines of Gram- 
mar, expressed in as clear and simple a manner as possible. It is com- 
plete in itself, being a Grammar, Exercises, Reading Book, and Lexicon, 
all in one ; so that the pupil, while studying this, needs no other book 
on the subject The knowledge acquired by the study of this work will 
be an important preparation to the young student for commencing the 
jtudy of Greek Grammar with ease and advantage, 

VIIL— THE PRINCIPLES OF GREEK GRAMMAR 

This work is intended to be a comprehensive manual of Greek Gram- 
wiar, adapted to the use of the younger, as well as of the more advanced 
«tu dents, in schools and colleges. Both in Etymology and Syntax, the 
L-«.di*ig principles of Greek Grammar are exhibited in definitions and 
rules, as few and as brief as possible, in order to be easily committed to 
memory, and so comprehensive as to be of general and easy application 
This work is iiow more extensively used than any other of the kind in 
the country. 

IX— GREEK READER. 

This work, like the Latin Reader, is properly a sequel tp the Greek 
Grammar, and an introduction to the study of the Greek classic authors. 
It seeks to accomplish its object in the same way as the Latin Reader. 
(See above, No. YI.) With these are connected 

SPENCER'S LATIN LESSONS, with exercises in parsing, introduc- 
tory to Bullions' Latin Grammar. 

In this series of books, the three Grammars, English, Latin, and 
Greek, are all on the same plan. The general arrangement, definitions, 
rules, etc., are the same, and expressed in the same language, as nearly as 
the nature of the case would admit. To those who study Latin and 
Greek, much time and labor, it is believed, will be saved by this method, 
both to teacher and pupil ; the analogy and peculiarities of the different 
languages being kept in view, will show what is common to all, or pecu- 
liar to each ; the confusion and difficulty unnecessarily occasioned by the 
use of elementary works, differing widely from each other hi language 
and structure, will be avoided ; and the progress of the student rendered 
much more rapid, easy, and satisfactory. 

No series of Grammars having this object in view, has heretofore been 
prepared, and the advantages which they offer cannot be obtained in an 
equal degree by the study of any other Grammars now in use. They 
form a complete course of elementary books, in which the substance oi 
the latest and best Grammars in each language has been compressed into 
a. volume of convenient size, beautifully printed on superior paper, neatly 
and strongly bound, and are put at the lowest prices at which they cac 
be afforded 



The elementary works, intended to imk>w the Grammars, namely, ti, 
Latin Reader, and the Greek Reader, are also on the same plan — are prt 
pared with special references to these works, and contain a course v* 
elementary instruction so unique and simple, as to furnish great facilititeg 
to the student in these languages. 



BULLIONS* SERIES OF LATIN CLASSICS. 

This series contains the following works, to which others, in course of 
preparation, will soon be added, viz : 

L— CAESAR'S COMMENTARIES ON THE GALLIC WAR. 

In this work, the plan of the Latin Reader is carried on throughout. 
The same introduction on the Latin idioms is prefixed for convenience- of 
reference, and the same mode of reference to the grammar and introduc- 
tion is continued. The Notes are neither too meagre nor too voluminous ; 
they are intended not to do the work of the student for him, but to 
direct and assist liim in doing it himself. It is embellished with a beauti- 
ful map of Gaul, and several wood-cuts representing the engines of war 
used by the Romans. 

II— CICERO'S SELECT ORATIONS, 

With notes, critical and explanatory; adapted to Bullions' Latin 
Grammar, and also to the Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard. This 
selection contains the four orations against Catiline. — The oration for the 
Poet Archias, — for Marcellus, — for Q. Iigarius, — for king Deiotarus, — for 
the Manilian law, — and for Milo. The notes are more extended than 
those in Caesar's Commentaries, especially in historical and archaeological 
notices, necessary to explain the allusions to persons and events in which 
the orations abound, a knowledge of which is indispensable to a proper 
understanding of the subject, and to enable the student to keep in view 
the train of argument pursued. — In other respects, the proper medium 
between too much, and too little assistance has been studied and constanl 
reference made to the Grammar, for the explanation of uncommon o^ 
difficult constructions. 



HX— SALLUST'S CATILINE AND JUGURTHA, 

On the same plan. 

Published also by the same — . 

THE WORKS OF TIRGIL, with copious notes, etc., and also a talfe 
of reference ; by Rev. J. G. Cooper, A. M. 



SERIES OF ARITHMETICS. 

1. SCHELL'S INTRODUCTORY LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC - 

This work is peculiarly adapted to the wants of beginners. The langut^e 
is simple, the definitions clear, the examples easy, and the transition from 
subjects gradual and natural. Each succeeding page furnishes a new 
lesson, and each lesson contains four distinct kinds of Exercise ; giving a 
greater, more pleasing, and useful variety than will be found elsewhere 
in any work of the kind. 

2. INTELLECTUAL, AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC; or, First 
Lessons in Arithmetical Analysis, intended as an introduction to Dodd'a 
Arithmetic. By J. L. Exos, Graduate of the N. Y. State Normal School. 

3. ELEMENTARY AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC, by James B. 
Dodd, A. M., Professor of Mathematics and Natural PhDosophy in Transyl- 
vania University, Lexington, Kentucky. — This is a work of superior merit. 
The arrangement is natural, the system complete, and the nomenclature 
greatly improved. It is admirably adapted to the purposes of instruction 
by its clear and concise statement of principles, the brevity and compre- 
hensiveness of its rules, and the excellent and thorough quality of intel- 
lectual discipline which it affords. 

Professor Dodd has prepared a more advanced Arithmetic for the 
accommodation of those who desire a fuller course. Also an Algebra. 

These three Arithmetics have been prepared by teachers of great prac- 
tical experience — each of then4(^ninent in that department of instruction 
for which4iis work is designed. 



SCIENTIFIC SERIES. 

This valuable series for the use of schools embraces the following au- 
thors and subjects : 

l. Comstock's Series of Books of the Sciences, viz,: 

INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, for children. 
SYSTEM OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, revised and enlarged. 
NEW ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 
THE YOUNG BOTANIST, for beginners, with cuts. 

. ELEMENTS OF BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY with 

cuts. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY, both comparative and human. 

(NEW) ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. 

ELEMENTS OF MINERALOGY. 

NATURAL HISTORY OF BEASTS AND BIRDS, showing their com- 

parative size, and containing anecdotes illustrating their habits and 

instincts. 

The immense sale of Dr. Comstock's books, renders it probable that 
I he j are familiar to most teachers. They are so admirably adapted to 
the school-room, that the " Philosophy" has been republished in several 
European countries. Revised editions of several of these works hav« 
been recently issued, including late discoveries and improvements. 

Comstock's Natural Philosophy having been carefully examined by 
the Edinburgh and London Editors, previous to its republication in 
these cities, all the corrections or additions which they found it advisable 
to make have been incorporated in the original work — so far as they 
were ascertained to be judicious and adapted to our system of instruc- 
tion. This philosophy now appears as in reality the work of three accom- 
plished authors, endorsed and sanctioned by the great majority of Amer- 
ican teachers, as well as those of England, Scotland and Prussia. Tlu 
Chemistry has been entirely revised, and contains all the late discoveries, 
together with the methods of analyzing minerals and metals. 

2. BROCKLESBY'S ELEMENTS OF METEOROLOGY, with ques- 
tions for Examination, designed for Schools and Academies. Of this 
work, Prof. Olmstead, of Yale College, says: — "No natural science is 
more instructive, more attractive, and more practically useful, than Me- 
teorology, treated as you have treated 4fc where the philosophical ex 
planations of the various . phenomena of the atmosphere aije founded 
upon an extensive induction of facts. This science is more particularly 
interesting to the young, because it explains so many things that are 
daily occurring around them, and it thus inspires a taste for philosophical 
observation, and what is more, for philosophical reasoning. I think it 
cannot fail to be received as a valuable addition to our Text Books." 

3. BROCKLESBY'S VIEWS OF THE MICROSCOPIC WORLD.— 

An elegantly illustrated work, exhibiting a variety of insects, animal- 
cules, sections of wood, crystalizations, &c., as they appear when highly 
magnified. Tins is one of the most interesting and useful books for 
Family and School Libraries ever published. It is the only distinct trea- 
tise on the subject, is admirably prepared for the use of classes, and 
should be extensively taught in our schools. 

4. WHITLOCK'S GEOMETRY AND SURVEYING.— This is a 

highly original work: combining, in a connected and available form, 
such analogous features of Arithmetic, Algebra and Geometry, as are ap- 
propriate to the subject, and will be found useful in the practical duties 
of hie: giving the pupil, in a -comparatively brief course of study, not 
onlv a full and close knowledge of his subject, but a comprehensive vie\k 
of Mathematical Science, 



TkiA work is well spoken of universally, and is already in use in 
some of the best institutions in this country. It is recommended by Profc 
Pierce of Cambridge, Prof. Smith of Middletown, Prof. Dodd of Lexing 
ton, and many other eminent mathematicians. 



OLNEY'S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES. 

1. OLNEY'S OUTLINE MAPS, AND PRIMARY GEOGRAPHY. r 

These works are intended for young pupils and form an appropriate in 
troduction to the larger works. 

2. OLNEY'S QUAP.TO GEOGRAPHY.— The Maps in this work con- 
tain but little besides what the pupil is required to learn, consequently it 
facilitates the progress of the pupil, and saves labor on the part of the 
teacher. This Geography was prepared at the suggestion of many of the 
teachers, and is already extensively introduced from preference. Few 
books have proved so uniformly acceptable for common schools. Its sta- 
tistical information is very valuable. 

3. OLNEY'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS.— This world 
renowned book is not behind any of its competitors, in point of execution 
and accuracy. The Atlas is probably superior to any other, and contains 
a Map of the World. as known to the Ancients, besides numerous impor- 
tant tables. The whole work is as complete and correct as a new book, 
and will continue to maintain its character, though alterations will bv> 
avoided as far as possible. 



THE BEGINNER'S SERIES. 

BENTLEY'S PICTORIAL SPELLING BOOK— A beautifully illustrate© 
and highly attractive book for children. 

GALLAUDET'S ILLUSTRATIVE DEFINER,— The best book for teach 
ing the right use of words, and the art of composition. 

THE STUDENT'S PRIMER, by J. S. Dexmax; being on « plan some 
what new, this Primer has obtained great popularity. 

THE STUDENT'S SPEAKER, for young pupils. 

CHE STUDENT'S SPELLING BOOK, on the Analytical plan, by the 
author of the "Student's Primer." This new and greatly improved 
text-book is just published, and destined, when known, to supersede 
all ©there, in public favor, its classification of words and arrangdment 



8 

of tables are such, that, " by learning to spell and define five thousand 
words, the pupil will obtaiu a knowledge of the spelling and significa- 
tion of about fifteen thousand" This feature alone makes it two hun- 
dred per cent, cheaper, at the same price, thau any other Spelling Book 
* now in use. 

A set of Readers, by the author of the Student's Series, is now in 
course of publication, which will much enhance the present great popu- 
larity of this series. 

The publishers think it proper to add that, Bullions' Analytical and 
Practical Grammar, besides being in extensive use in Academies, has been 
introduced into the public schools of Boston, and several other large cities, 
without solicitation ; and that the sale of the Student's Series ha3 been 
such that they have been quite unable to supply the demand. Readers 
1, 2, 3, and 4, have been issued, and such is the simplicity and natural 
order of the arrangement and the interest of the pieces, that pupils pro- 
gress with great rapidity and with little apparent effort. • 

Th'e publications of P., W. <fc Co., are well printed, neatly and sub- 
stantially bound, are furnished at low prices, and for sale by Booksellers 
generally. 

All visiting New- York, interested in the Book trade or Schools, are 
requested to call on the publishers, who keep constantly on hand the 
largest variety of School, Classical, and Miscellaneous Books, Pens, Ink. 
Blank Books, Memorandums, Paper, Folders, Bibles, <fcc, <fcc, especially 
adapted to the country trade. 

PRATT, WOODFORD & CO. 

No. 4 COURTLANDT-ST.. N. Y. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



VALUABLE SCI 

PUBLISH! 

PRATT, WOOD* 

NEW-YORK 




III I ill III II II 
003 238 447 A ^, 



BULLIONS' PRACTICAL LESSONS IN GRAMMAR AND 

POSITION. 

BULLIONS' ANALYTICAL &, PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
SPENCERS' LATIN LESSONS. 
BULLIONS' LATIN GRAMMAR, 

BULLIONS' LATIN READER, WITH VOCABULARY, 
BULLIONS' C/ESAR. 
BULLIONS' GREEK LESSONS. 
BULLIONS' GREEK GRAMMAR. 
BULLIONS' GREEK READER, On a New Plan. 
COMSTOCK'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

COMSTOCK'S YOUTHS' INTRODUCTORY PHILOSOPHY, 
COMSTOCK'S ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY. 
COMSTOCK'S OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 
COMSTOCK'S YOUNG BOTANIST, 
COMSTOCK'S ELEMENTf CF BOTANY. 
COMSTOCK'S OUTLINES OF GEOLOGY. 
COMSTOCK'S ELEMENTS OF MINERALOGY. 
COMSTOCK'S NATURAL HISTORY. 
OLNEY'S INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY. 
OLNE^'S QUARTO GEOGRAPHY. 
OLNEY'S GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS. 
jOLNEYS OUTLINE MAPS. 
IDODD'S ARITHMETIC, New and very lopular. 
WHITLOCK'S GEOMETRY AND SURVEYING. 
BROCKLESBYS METEOROLOGY. 
BENTLEYS PICTORIAL SPELLING BOOK. 
COOPER'S VIRGIL. 

BROCKLESBY'S WONDERS OF THE MICROSCOPE. 
GALLAUDET'S SCHOOL AND FAMILY DICTIONARY. 
KIRKHAMS ELOCUTION. 
OLNEY'S NATIONAL PRECEPTOR. 
GRIFFINS-SOUTHERN READERS, 1, 2, 3, 4. 

The above v te in quite general use, so far as known, in the United 
Teachers are invited to examine them, and it 1^ believed they will te sfiiJ 
their superiority. 

P W. &r Co. keep for sale all the various School b-.ioks m#; Bibles, 
ments, Classical Books, Paper, Stationary, Steel Pens, &c. &c.^i 
lowest prices. 



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